List of equations in quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics
${\hat {H}}\|\psi (t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\|\psi (t)\rangle$ Schrödinger equation
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This article summarizes equations in the theory of quantum mechanics.

Wavefunctions

A fundamental physical constant occurring in quantum mechanics is the Planck constant, h. A common abbreviation is ħ = h/2π, also known as the reduced Planck constant or Dirac constant.

Quantity (common name/s)	(Common) symbol/	Defining equation	SI units	Dimension
Wave function	ψ, Ψ	To solve from the Schrödinger equation	varies with situation and number of particles
Wavefunction probability density	ρ	$\rho = \left \| \Psi \right \|^2 = \Psi^* \Psi$	m⁻³	[L]⁻³
Wavefunction probability current	j	Non-relativistic, no external field: $\mathbf{j} = \frac{-i\hbar}{2m}\left(\Psi^* \nabla \Psi - \Psi \nabla \Psi^\right)$ $= \frac\hbar m \mathrm{Im}(\Psi^\nabla\Psi)=\mathrm{Re}(\Psi^* \frac{\hbar}{im} \nabla \Psi)$ star * is complex conjugate	m⁻² s⁻¹	[T]⁻¹ [L]⁻²

The general form of wavefunction for a system of particles, each with position r_i and z-component of spin s_{z i}. Sums are over the discrete variable s_z, integrals over continuous positions r.

For clarity and brevity, the coordinates are collected into tuples, the indices label the particles (which cannot be done physically, but is mathematically necessary). Following are general mathematical results, used in calculations.

Property or effect	Nomenclature	Equation
Wavefunction for N particles in 3d	r = (r₁, r₂... r_N) s_z = (s_z 1, s_z 2... s_{z N})	In function notation: $\Psi = \Psi \left (\mathbf{r}, \mathbf{s_z}, t \right )$ in bra–ket notation: $\|\Psi\rangle = \sum_{s_{z1}} \sum_{s_{z2}}\cdots\sum_{s_{zN}}\int_{V_1}\int_{V_2}\cdots\int_{V_N} \mathrm{d}\mathbf{r}_1\mathrm{d}\mathbf{r}_2\cdots\mathrm{d}\mathbf{r}_N \Psi \|\mathbf{r}, \mathbf{s_z}\rangle$ for non-interacting particles: $\Psi = \prod_{n=1}^N\Psi \left (\mathbf{r}_n,s_{zn}, t \right )$
Position-momentum Fourier transform (1 particle in 3d)	Φ = momentum-space wavefunction Ψ = position-space wavefunction	$\begin{align} \Phi(\mathbf{p},s_z,t) & = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\hbar}} \int\limits_{\mathrm{all \, space}} e^{-i\mathbf{p}\cdot\mathbf{r}/\hbar} \Psi(\mathbf{r}, s_z,t)\mathrm{d}^3\mathbf{r} \\ &\upharpoonleft \downharpoonright\\ \Psi(\mathbf{r},s_z,t) & = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\hbar}} \int\limits_{\mathrm{all \, space}} e^{+i\mathbf{p}\cdot\mathbf{r}/\hbar} \Phi(\mathbf{p},s_z,t)\mathrm{d}^3\mathbf{p}_n \\ \end{align}$
General probability distribution	V_j = volume (3d region) particle may occupy, P = Probability that particle 1 has position r₁ in volume V₁ with spin s_z1 and particle 2 has position r₂ in volume V₂ with spin s_z2, etc.	$P = \sum_{s_{zN}}\cdots\sum_{s_{z2}}\sum_{s_{z1}}\int_{V_N}\cdots\int_{V_2}\int_{V_1} \left \| \Psi \right \|^2\mathrm{d}^3\mathbf{r}_1\mathrm{d}^3\mathbf{r}_2\cdots\mathrm{d}^3\mathbf{r}_N\,\!$
General normalization condition		$P = \sum_{s_{zN}}\cdots\sum_{s_{z2}}\sum_{s_{z1}}\int\limits_{\mathrm{all \, space}}\cdots\int\limits_{\mathrm{all \, space}}\int\limits_{\mathrm{all \, space}} \left \| \Psi \right \|^2\mathrm{d}^3\mathbf{r}_1\mathrm{d}^3\mathbf{r}_2\cdots\mathrm{d}^3\mathbf{r}_N = 1\,\!$

Equations

Wave–particle duality and time evolution

Property or effect	Nomenclature	Equation
Planck–Einstein equation and de Broglie wavelength relations	P = (E/c, p) is the four-momentum, K = (ω/c, k) is the four-wavevector, E = energy of particle ω = 2πf is the angular frequency and frequency of the particle ħ = h/2π are the Planck constants c = speed of light	$\mathbf{P} = (E/c, \mathbf{p}) = \hbar(\omega /c ,\mathbf{k}) = \hbar \mathbf{K}$
Schrödinger equation	Ψ = wavefunction of the system Ĥ = Hamiltonian operator, E = energy eigenvalue of system i is the imaginary unit t = time	General time-dependent case: $i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \Psi = \hat{H}\Psi$ Time-independent case: $\hat{H}\Psi = E\Psi$
Heisenberg equation	Â = operator of an observable property [ ] is the commutator $\langle \, \rangle$ denotes the average	$\frac{d}{dt}\hat{A}(t)=\frac{i}{\hbar}[\hat{H},\hat{A}(t)]+\frac{\partial \hat{A}(t)}{\partial t},$
Time evolution in Heisenberg picture (Ehrenfest theorem)	m = mass, V = potential energy, r = position, p = momentum, of a particle.	$\frac{d}{dt}\langle \hat{A}\rangle = \frac{1}{i\hbar}\langle [\hat{A},\hat{H}] \rangle+ \left\langle \frac{\partial \hat{A}}{\partial t}\right\rangle$ For momentum and position; $m\frac{d}{dt}\langle \mathbf{r}\rangle = \langle \mathbf{p} \rangle$ $\frac{d}{dt}\langle \mathbf{p}\rangle = -\langle \nabla V \rangle$

Non-relativistic time-independent Schrödinger equation

Summarized below are the various forms the Hamiltonian takes, with the corresponding Schrödinger equations and forms of wavefunction solutions. Notice in the case of one spatial dimension, for one particle, the partial derivative reduces to an ordinary derivative.

	One particle	N particles
One dimension	$\hat{H} = \frac{\hat{p}^2}{2m} + V(x) = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{d^2}{d x^2} + V(x)$	$\begin{align}\hat{H} &= \sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{\hat{p}_n^2}{2m_n} + V(x_1,x_2,\cdots x_N) \\ & = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2}\sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{1}{m_n}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x_n^2} + V(x_1,x_2,\cdots x_N) \end{align}$ where the position of particle n is x_n.
	$E\Psi = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{d^2}{d x^2}\Psi + V\Psi$	$E\Psi = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2}\sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{1}{m_n}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x_n^2}\Psi + V\Psi \, .$
	$\Psi (x,t)=\psi (x)e^{-iEt/\hbar }\,.$ There is a further restriction — the solution must not grow at infinity, so that it has either a finite L²-norm (if it is a bound state) or a slowly diverging norm (if it is part of a continuum):^[1] $\\| \psi \\|^2 = \int \|\psi(x)\|^2\, dx.\,$	$\Psi = e^{-iEt/\hbar}\psi(x_1,x_2\cdots x_N)$ for non-interacting particles $\Psi = e^{-i{E t/\hbar}}\prod_{n=1}^N\psi(x_n) \, , \quad V(x_1,x_2,\cdots x_N) = \sum_{n=1}^N V(x_n) \, .$
Three dimensions	$\begin{align}\hat{H} & = \frac{\hat{\mathbf{p}}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{p}}}{2m} + V(\mathbf{r}) \\ & = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\nabla^2 + V(\mathbf{r}) \end{align}$ where the position of the particle is r = (x, y, z).	$\begin{align} \hat{H} & = \sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{\hat{\mathbf{p}}_n\cdot\hat{\mathbf{p}}_n}{2m_n} + V(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2,\cdots\mathbf{r}_N) \\ & = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2}\sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{1}{m_n}\nabla_n^2 + V(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2,\cdots\mathbf{r}_N) \end{align}$ where the position of particle n is r _n = (x_n, y_n, z_n), and the Laplacian for particle n using the corresponding position coordinates is $\nabla_n^2=\frac{\partial^2}{{\partial x_n}^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{{\partial y_n}^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{{\partial z_n}^2}$
	$E\Psi = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\nabla^2\Psi + V\Psi$	$E\Psi = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2}\sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{1}{m_n}\nabla_n^2\Psi + V\Psi$
	$\Psi = \psi(\mathbf{r}) e^{-iEt/\hbar}$	$\Psi = e^{-iEt/\hbar}\psi(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2\cdots \mathbf{r}_N)$ for non-interacting particles $\Psi = e^{-i{E t/\hbar}}\prod_{n=1}^N\psi(\mathbf{r}_n) \, , \quad V(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2,\cdots \mathbf{r}_N) = \sum_{n=1}^N V(\mathbf{r}_n)$

Non-relativistic time-dependent Schrödinger equation

Again, summarized below are the various forms the Hamiltonian takes, with the corresponding Schrödinger equations and forms of solutions.

	One particle	N particles
One dimension	$\hat{H} = \frac{\hat{p}^2}{2m} + V(x,t) = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + V(x,t)$	$\hat{H} = \sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{\hat{p}_n^2}{2m_n} + V(x_1,x_2,\cdots x_N,t) = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2}\sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{1}{m_n}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x_n^2} + V(x_1,x_2,\cdots x_N,t)$ where the position of particle n is x_n.
	$i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial t}\Psi = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2}\Psi + V\Psi$	$i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial t}\Psi = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2}\sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{1}{m_n}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x_n^2}\Psi + V\Psi \, .$
	$\Psi = \Psi(x,t)$	$\Psi = \Psi(x_1,x_2\cdots x_N,t)$
Three dimensions	$\begin{align}\hat{H} & = \frac{\hat{\mathbf{p}}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{p}}}{2m} + V(\mathbf{r},t) \\ & = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\nabla^2 + V(\mathbf{r},t) \\ \end{align}$	$\begin{align} \hat{H} & = \sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{\hat{\mathbf{p}}_n\cdot\hat{\mathbf{p}}_n}{2m_n} + V(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2,\cdots\mathbf{r}_N,t) \\ & = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2}\sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{1}{m_n}\nabla_n^2 + V(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2,\cdots\mathbf{r}_N,t) \end{align}$
	$i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial t}\Psi = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\nabla^2\Psi + V\Psi$	$i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial t}\Psi = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2}\sum_{n=1}^{N}\frac{1}{m_n}\nabla_n^2\Psi + V\Psi$ This last equation is in a very high dimension,^[2] so the solutions are not easy to visualize.
	$\Psi = \Psi(\mathbf{r},t)$	$\Psi = \Psi(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2,\cdots\mathbf{r}_N,t)$

Photoemission

Property/Effect	Nomenclature	Equation
Photoelectric equation	K_max = Maximum kinetic energy of ejected electron (J) h = Planck's constant f = frequency of incident photons (Hz = s⁻¹) φ, Φ = Work function of the material the photons are incident on (J)	$K_\mathrm{max} = hf - \Phi\,\!$
Threshold frequency and	φ, Φ = Work function of the material the photons are incident on (J) f₀, ν₀ = Threshold frequency (Hz = s⁻¹)	Can only be found by experiment. The De Broglie relations give the relation between them: $\phi = hf_0\,\!$
Photon momentum	p = momentum of photon (kg m s⁻¹) f = frequency of photon (Hz = s⁻¹) λ = wavelength of photon (m)	The De Broglie relations give: $p = hf/c = h/\lambda\,\!$

Quantum uncertainty

Property or effect	Nomenclature	Equation
Heisenberg's uncertainty principles	n = number of photons φ = wave phase [, ] = commutator	Position-momentum $\sigma(x) \sigma(p) \ge \frac{\hbar}{2} \,\!$ Energy-time $\sigma(E) \sigma(t) \ge \frac{\hbar}{2} \,\!$ Number-phase $\sigma(n) \sigma(\phi) \ge \frac{\hbar}{2} \,\!$
Dispersion of observable	A = observables (eigenvalues of operator)	$\begin{align} \sigma(A)^2 & = \langle(A-\langle A \rangle)^2\rangle \\ & = \langle A^2 \rangle - \langle A \rangle^2 \end{align}$
General uncertainty relation	A, B = observables (eigenvalues of operator)	$\sigma(A)\sigma(B) \geq \frac{1}{2}\langle i[\hat{A}, \hat{B}] \rangle$

Probability Distributions
Property or effect	Nomenclature	Equation
Density of states		$N(E) = 8\sqrt{2}\pi m^{3/2}E^{1/2}/h^3\,\!$
Fermi–Dirac distribution (fermions)	P(E_i) = probability of energy E_i g(E_i) = degeneracy of energy E_i (no of states with same energy) μ = chemical potential	$P(E_i) = g(E_i)/(e^{(E-\mu)/kT}+1)\,\!$
Bose–Einstein distribution (bosons)		$P(E_i) = g(E_i)/(e^{(E_i-\mu)/kT}-1)\,\!$

Angular momentum

Main articles: angular momentum operator and quantum number

Property or effect	Nomenclature	Equation
Angular momentum quantum numbers	s = spin quantum number m_s = spin magnetic quantum number ℓ = Azimuthal quantum number m_ℓ = azimuthal magnetic quantum number m_j = total angular momentum magnetic quantum number j = total angular momentum quantum number	Spin projection: $m_s \in \{-s,-s+1\cdots s-1,s\}\,\!$ Orbital: $m_\ell \in \{-\ell,-\ell+1\cdots \ell-1,\ell\}\,\!$ $m_\ell \in \{0 \cdots n-1\}\,\!$ Total: $\begin{align}& j = \ell +s \\ & j \in \{\|\ell-s\|,\|\ell-s\|+1 \cdots \|\ell+s\|-1,\|\ell+s\| \} \\ \end{align}\,\!$
Angular momentum magnitudes	angular momementa: S = Spin, L = orbital, J = total	Spin magnitude: $\|\mathbf{S}\| = \hbar\sqrt{s(s+1)}\,\!$ Orbital magnitude: $\|\mathbf{L}\| = \hbar\sqrt{\ell(\ell+1)}\,\!$ Total magnitude: $\mathbf{J} = \mathbf{L} + \mathbf{S}\,\!$ $\|\mathbf{J}\| = \hbar\sqrt{j(j+1)}\,\!$
Angular momentum components		Spin: $S_z = m_s \hbar\,\!$ Orbital: $L_z = m_\ell \hbar\,\!$

Magnetic moments

In what follows, B is an applied external magnetic field and the quantum numbers above are used.

Property or effect	Nomenclature	Equation
orbital magnetic dipole moment	e = electron charge m_e = electron rest mass L = electron orbital angular momentum g_ℓ = orbital Landé g-factor μ_B = Bohr magneton	$\boldsymbol{\mu}_\ell = -e\mathbf{L}/2m_e = g_\ell \frac{\mu_B}{\hbar} \mathbf{L}\,\!$ z-component: $\mu_{\ell,z} = -m_\ell\mu_B\,\!$
spin magnetic dipole moment	S = electron spin angular momentum g_s = spin Landé g-factor	$\boldsymbol{\mu}_s = -e\mathbf{S}/m_e = g_s \frac{\mu_B}{\hbar} \mathbf{S}\,\!$ z-component: $\mu_{s,z} = -e S_z/m_e = g_seS_z/2m_e\,\!$
dipole moment potential	U = potential energy of dipole in field	$U = -\boldsymbol{\mu}\cdot\mathbf{B} = -\mu_z B\,\!$

The Hydrogen atom

Main article: Hydrogen atom

Property or effect	Nomenclature	Equation
Energy level :p≈	E_n = energy eigenvalue n = principal quantum number e = electron charge m_e = electron rest mass ε₀ = permittivity of free space h = Planck's constant	$E_n = -me^4/8\epsilon_0^2h^2n^2 = 13.61eV/n^2\,\!$
Spectrum	λ = wavelength of emitted photon, during electronic transition from E_i to E_j	$\frac{1}{\lambda} = R\left(\frac{1}{n_j^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2}\right), \, n_j<n_i\,\!$

Footnotes

↑ Feynman, R.P.; Leighton, R.B.; Sand, M. (1964). "Operators". The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 3. Addison-Wesley. pp. 20–7. ISBN 0-201-02115-3.
↑ Shankar, R. (1994). Principles of Quantum Mechanics. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-306-44790-7.

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SI units

Base units	ampere candela kelvin kilogram metre mole second

Derived units with special names	becquerel coulomb degree Celsius farad gray henry hertz joule katal lumen lux newton ohm pascal radian siemens sievert steradian tesla volt watt weber

Other accepted units	astronomical unit bar dalton day decibel degree of arc electronvolt hectare hour litre minute minute of arc neper second of arc tonne atomic units natural units

See also	Conversion of units History of the metric system Metric prefixes Proposed redefinitions Systems of measurement

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