Rohingya insurgency in Western Myanmar

Rohingya insurgency in Western Myanmar
Part of the Internal conflict in Myanmar

Rohingya population in Rakhine State (Arakan)
Date1947 – present
(69 years)
LocationNorthern Rakhine State;
Myanmar-Bangladesh border
Status Ongoing
Belligerents

Republic of the Union of Myanmar

Former combatants:
Union of Burma (1948–1962)
Military governments (1962–2011)

Faith Movement of Arakan (since 2016)[1]
Former combatants:
Mujahideen (1947–1970)
Ittehadul Muslimeen of Arakan (until 1970s)
Rohingya Liberation Party (1972–1974)
Rohingya Patriotic Front (1974–1982)
Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (1980–2001)
Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front (1986–2001)
Arakan Rohingya National Organisation (1986–2001)
Proclaimed support:
Al-Qaeda
Hezbi Islami
Hizbul Mujahideen

Jamaat-e-Islami
Commanders and leaders

Htin Kyaw
(President of Myanmar)
Maung Maung Soe
(Commander of the WRMC)[2]
Former commanders:
Aung Gyi (1947–1963)
Tin Oo (1947–1976)
Than Shwe (1992–2011)

Thein Sein (2011–16)

Abu Ammar Junooni[1]
Former commanders:
Abdul Kassem (1947–1952)
Annul Jauli (1961–1970)
Zaffar Kawal (1961–1974)
Abdul Latif (1961–1974)
Muhammad Jafar Habib (1972–1982)
Muhammad Yunus (1974–2001)

Nurul Islam (1974–2001)
Units involved

Tatmadaw

 Rohingya National Army
Strength

33 infantry battalions[2]
Previous totals:

1,100 (1947–1950)[4]

300[5]–500[3][6] (2016)
Previous totals:
2,000–5,000 (1947–1950)[4]

2,000 (1952)[4]
Casualties and losses
2016:
13 soldiers and 19 policemen killed[7][8]		 2016:
69 killed[7][9] and 234 arrested[7][10][11]

2016:
102 killed in total (excluding civilians)[7][12][13]

20,000 internally displaced[14]

250,000–270,000 fled to Bangladesh, Malaysia, and Thailand[14]

The Rohingya insurgency in Western Myanmar is an ongoing insurgency in northern Rakhine State (also known as Arakan), Myanmar (Burma), waged by insurgents belonging to the Rohingya ethnic minority. Most clashes have occurred in the Maungdaw District, which borders Bangladesh.

From 1947 to 1961, local mujahideen fought government forces in an attempt to have the mostly Rohingya populated Mayu peninsula in northern Rakhine State secede from Myanmar, so it could be annexed by East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh).[15] During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the mujahideen lost most of its momentum and support, resulting in most insurgents surrendering to government forces.[16][17]

In October 2016, clashes erupted on the Myanmar-Bangladesh border, resulting in the deaths of at least 40 people, excluding civilians.[12][18] In November 2016, violence erupted again, bringing the death toll to 102.[7]

Mujahideen separatist movements (1947–1970)

Early separatist insurgency

In May 1946, Muslim leaders from Rakhine State (Arakan) met with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, and asked for the formal annexation of two townships in the Mayu region, Buthidaung and Maungdaw, by East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh). Two months later, the North Arakan Muslim League was founded in Akyab (present-day Sittwe, capital of Rakhine State), which also asked that the region be annexed.[19]

The newly formed post-independence government however, refused to grant autonomy or independence to a separate Muslim state, and refused to concede the area to East Pakistan. Local mujahideen subsequently declared jihad on the Burmese government,[20] and began targeting local authorities and soldiers stationed in the area. The newly formed mujahideen movement was led by Abdul Kassem, and began gaining territory, driving out local Rakhine communities from their villages, some of whom fled to East Pakistan.[21]

In November 1948, martial law was declared in the region following the initial attacks, and the 5th Battalion of the Burma Rifles and the 2nd Chin Battalion were sent to liberate the area. By June 1949, the Burmese government's control over the region was reduced to the city of Akyab (Sittwe), while the mujahideen had possession of nearly all of northern Rakhine State. However, after several months of combat, the Burmese government was successful in pushing the mujahideen back into the jungles of the Mayu region, near the country's border with East Pakistan.

The post-independence government accused the mujahideen of encouraging the illegal immigration of thousands of Bengali people from East Pakistan (Bangladesh) into Rakhine State during their rule of the area, a claim that has been highly disputed over the decades, as it brings into question the legitimacy of the Rohingya people as an ethnic group of Myanmar (Burma).[16]

Military operations against the mujahideen

Between 1950 and 1954, the Tatmadaw (Burmese/Myanmar Armed Forces) launched several military operations against the remaining mujahideen in northern Rakhine State.[22] The first military operation was launched in March 1950, followed by a second named Operation Mayu in October 1952. Several mujahideen leaders agreed to disarm and surrender to government forces following the successful operations.[19]

In the latter half of 1954, mujahideen insurgents again began to carry out attacks on local authorities and military units stationed around Maungdaw, Buthidaung and Rathedaung. In protest, hundreds of Rakhine Buddhist monks began hunger strikes in Rangoon (present-day Yangon),[16] and in response the government launched Operation Monsoon in October 1954.[19] The Tatmadaw managed to capture the main strongholds of the mujahideen and kill several of their leaders. The operation successfully reduced the mujahideen's influence and support in the region.[4]

Decline and fall of the mujahideen

A Rohingya mujahideen fighter surrenders his weapon to Brigadier-General Aung Gyi, 4 July 1961.

In 1957, 150 mujahideen, led by Shore Maluk and Zurah, surrendered to government forces. On 7 November 1957, 214 additional mujahideen under the leadership of al-Rashid disarmed and surrendered to government forces.[17]

In the beginning of the 1960s, the mujahideen began to lose its momentum after the governments of Myanmar (Burma) and Pakistan (which controlled Bangladesh at the time) began negotiating on how to deal with the insurgents at their border. On 4 July 1961, 290 mujahideen in southern Maungdaw Township surrendered their arms in front of Brigadier-General Aung Gyi, the then Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Burmese Army.[23] On 15 November 1961, the few remaining mujahideen surrendered to Aung Gyi in the eastern region of Buthidaung.[16]

A few dozen insurgents remained under the command of Zaffar Kawal, another group of 40 insurgents were led by Abdul Latif, and a mujahideen faction of 80 insurgents were led by Annul Jauli. All these groups lacked local support and a unifying ideology, which lead them to become rice smugglers around the end of the 1960s.[17]

Rohingya Islamist movements (1972–present)

Islamist movements in the 1970s and 1980s

On 15 July 1972, former mujahideen leader Zaffar Kawal founded the Rohingya Liberation Party (RLP), after mobilising various former mujahideen factions under his command. Zaffar appointed himself Chairman of the party, Abdul Latif as Vice Chairman and Minister of Military Affairs, and Muhammad Jafar Habib as the Secretary General, a graduate from Rangoon University. Their strength increased from 200 fighters in the beginning to 500 by 1974. The RLP was largely based in the jungles of Buthidaung, and were armed with weapons smuggled from Bangladesh. After a massive military operation by the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) in July 1974, Zaffar and most of his men fled across the border into Bangladesh.[17][24]

In 1974, Muhammad Jafar Habib, the former Secretary of the RLP, founded the Rohingya Patriotic Front (RPF), after the failure and dissolution of the RLP. The RPF had around 70 fighters,[17][25] and had Habib as self-appointed Chairman, Nurul Islam, a Yangon-educated lawyer, as Vice-Chairman, and Muhammad Yunus, a medical doctor, as Secretary General.[17]

In March 1978, government forces launched a military operation named Operation King Dragon in northern Rakhine State, with the focus of expelling Rohingya insurgents in the area.[26] As the operation extended farther into Rakhine State, hundreds of thousands of Rohingyas crossed the border, resulting in a large number of them seeking refuge around the border with Bangladesh.[25][27][28]

In the early 1980s, more radical elements broke away from the Rohingya Patriotic Front (RPF), and formed the Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO). It was led by Muhammad Yunus, the former Secretary General of the RPF. It soon became the main and most militant faction among the Rohingyas on the Myanmar-Bangladesh border. The RSO based itself on religious grounds, gaining support from various Islamist groups, such as Jamaat-e-Islami in Bangladesh and Pakistan, Hizb-e-Islami from Afghanistan, Hizb-ul-Mujahideen (HM) in the Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), Angkatan Belia Islam sa-Malaysia (ABIM) and the Islamic Youth Organisation of Malaysia.[25][28]

Another Rohingya militant group, the Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front (ARIF) was founded in 1986 by Nurul Islam, the former Vice-Chairman of the Rohingya Patriotic Front (RPF), after uniting the remnants of the old RPF and a handful of defectors from the RSO.[25]

Military expansions in the 1990s

In the early 1990s, the military camps of the Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO) were located in the Cox's Bazaar district in southern Bangladesh. RSO possessed a significant arsenal of light machine-guns, AK-47 assault rifles, RPG-2 rocket launchers, claymore mines and explosives, according to a field report conducted by correspondent Bertil Lintner in 1991.[29] The Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front (ARIF) was mostly armed with British manufactured 9mm Sterling L2A3 sub-machine guns, M-16 assault rifles and point-303 rifles.[29]

The military expansion of the RSO resulted in the government of Myanmar launching a massive counter-offensive to expel RSO insurgents along the Bangladesh-Myanmar border. In December 1991, Tatmadaw soldiers crossed the border and accidentally attacked a Bangladeshi military outpost, causing a major strain in Bangladeshi-Myanmar relations. By April 1992, more than 250,000 Rohingya civilians had been forced out of northern Rakhine State as a result of the increased military operations in the area.[25]

In April 1994, around 120 RSO insurgents entered Maungdaw Township in Myanmar by crossing the Naf River which marks the border between Bangladesh and Myanmar. On 28 April 1994, nine out of twelve bombs planted in different areas in Maungdaw by RSO insurgents exploded, damaging a fire engine and a few buildings, and seriously wounding four civilians.[30]

On 28 October 1998, the Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO) and the Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front (ARIF), led by Nurul Islam, merged and founded the Rohingya National Army (RNA), with the Arakan Rohingya National Organisation (ARNO) organising Rohingya insurgents of different factions into a single army.

One of the several dozen videotapes obtained by CNN from Al-Qaeda's archives in Afghanistan in August 2002 showed that "Muslim brothers from Burma" received training in Afghanistan.[25][28][31] According to intelligence sources in Asia, Rohingya recruits in the RSO were paid a 30,000 Bangladeshi taka ($525 USD) enlistment reward, and a salary of 10,000 taka ($175) per month. Families of fighters who were killed in action were offered 100,000 taka ($1,750) in compensation, a promise which lured many young Rohingya men, who were mostly very poor, to travel to Pakistan, where they would train and then perform suicide attacks in Afghanistan.[25][28]

2016 border attacks

On 9 October 2016, an estimated 300 unidentified insurgents attacked three Burmese border posts along Myanmar's border with Bangladesh. According to government officials in the border town of Maungdaw, the attackers brandished knives, machetes and homemade slingshots that fired metal bolts. Several dozen firearms and boxes of ammunition were looted by the attackers from the border posts. The attack resulted in the deaths of nine border officers.[5] On 11 October 2016, four Tatmadaw soldiers were killed on the third day of fighting.[18] Government officials in Rakhine State blamed the Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO), an Islamist insurgent group mainly active in the 1980s and 1990s, for the attacks.[32]

On 17 October 2016, a group calling itself the Faith Movement of Arakan (FMA) released a video on several social media sites claiming responsibility for the attacks.[6] In the following days, six other groups released statements, pledging allegiance to the group's leader, Abu Ammar Junooni.[1]

Following the attacks, local security forces began recruiting non-Rohingya locals for a new branch of "regional police". Officials announced that recruits would be trained in Sittwe, the capital of Rakhine State, and then be sent back to their villages to defend them.[33]

On 15 November 2016, the Tatmadaw announced that 69 Rohingya insurgents and 17 security forces (10 policemen, 7 soldiers) had been killed in recent clashes in northern Rakhine State, bringing the death toll to 134 (102 insurgents and 32 security forces). It was also announced that 234 people suspected of being connected to the attack were arrested.[7]

Commentary on the conflict

Demographic factors

Around 800,000 Rohingyas live in Myanmar, around 80% of whom live in Rakhine State. Nearly all of them have been denied citizenship by the government, as the government does not recognise the Rohingya people as a distinct ethnic group originating from Myanmar, but rather as illegal immigrants from Bangladesh. The United Nations consider the Rohingya people one of the world's most persecuted minorities.[34][35]

During the Bangladesh Liberation War and after its independence in 1971, there was a period of increased illegal immigration into Arakan due to political turmoil in Bangladesh. There is good evidence to indicate that Muslim people from Arakan have been migrating to today`s Bangladesh since 1940. In 1974, Arakan State was formed according to the new constitution of Myanmar. In the same year, the "Emergency Immigration Act" was endorsed, and strategies to combat illegal immigration were carried out by the Burmese government. By 1975, several thousand Muslims had fled to Bangladesh to escape the mounting government pressure.[4]

It is difficult to know if they were recent immigrants from Bangladesh, or ethnic Muslims who have lived in Arakan prior to the independence of Myanmar. In 1978, Operation King Dragon was launched to "scrutinize each individual living in the State and taking action against foreigners who have filtered into the country illegally". Arrests of illegal migrants during this Burmese Army Operation created unrest in Arakan; a mass exodus of Muslims (around 252,000 refugees) to Bangladesh occurred as a result. Between August 1978 and December 1979, repatriation was led by the UNHCR with most resettled in western Myanmar.[25][28][36] On 15 October 1982, Burmese Citizenship Law was introduced; with the exception of the Kaman Muslims, most of the Muslims in Burma were denied an ethnic minority classification, and thus were denied Burmese citizenship.[37]

On 18 September 1988, the Burmese military seized power by crushing the pro-democracy uprisings in Myanmar and formed a military regime by the name of SLORC - State Law and Order Restoration Council. In 1991-92, a few years of the introduction of military rule, the forced relocation of Muslims and creation of new Buddhist settlements in Buthidaung and Maungdaw townships by SLORC provoke another mass exodus of Rohingya Muslims(around 270,000) to Bangladesh. In 1993, most of them were repatriated due to UNHCR intervention; however, around 20,000 registered refugees still remained in some camps along the Myanmar-Bangladesh border.[14]

Academic discussion of the mujahideen insurgency

Moshe Yegar, an Israeli historian, argues that Mujahideen separatist movement in Arakan occurred because of the government's discrimination and oppression on Rohingya Muslims. Yegar argues the roots for the appearance of mujahideen insurgency as follows:[16]

“ After Burma's independence, Muslims were not accepted for military service; the Burmese government replaced Muslim civil servants, police and headmen by Arakanese who increasingly discriminated against the Muslim community; Muslims were arbitrarily arrested by police and soldiers; and, the immigration authorities imposed limitation of movement upon Muslims. ”

Mari Lall argues that one of the reasons of the Mujahideen Muslim uprisings in Arakan was due to the government's declaration of Buddhism as the official religion of Myanmar. This declaration questioned the rights of the Muslim Rohingya, Christian Karen, Chin, Kachin and led the secessionist movements of those minority groups.[38] Her argument was supported by Syed Serajul Islam. Syed writes:[39]

“ Immediately after declaring Buddhism as the state religion of Myanmar, the government took a number of specific measures to dismiss a great many Muslim officers and replace them with Buddhists. An all-out effort was made to transmigrate Buddhists from Myanmar proper to Arakan in order to diminish the Muslim majority. ”

However, above arguments contradicted the authentic events that happened within the historical time-line of Myanmar. Moshe Yegar's arguments on the possible causes of mujahideen insurgency was criticised by a reviewer on Yegar's book: "Muslims of Burma".[40]

“ [Yegar's] arguments seem to be anachronistic. Firstly, we have to note that Muslim separatist movements in Arakan had already begun before Burma’s independence together with an idea of separating the Mayu region of Arakan from Burma and creating an independent Muslim state. In May, 1946, Muslims of Arakan asked Mohammad Ali Jinna’s assistance in the annexing of this region to forthcoming Pakistan. Secondly, the Mujahidden rebellion (1947-1961) happened under U Nu’s parliamentary democracy rule. Available records for this democratic period do not show any trace on the discrimination against Muslims – even Muslim ministers were holding high positions within U Nu’s democracy government. Thirdly, such discrimination and oppression were only carried out by Burmese authorities under the military dictatorship of General Ne Win (1962-1988). It seems that Moshe Yegar anachronistically utilized the Muslims’ conditions under the Ne Win regime as the roots of the Mujahidden separatist movements. ”

Second argument on the Mudjahideen insurgency in relationship to the declaration of Buddhism as the State Religion of Myanmar also does not match with the historical authenticity. Buddhism was declared as the official religion of Myanmar on 26 July 1961, more than a decade after the start of mujahideen insurgency in 1947.[41]

Aye Chan, a historian at the Kanda University, suggests that the roots of Mujahideen movements in Arakan (1947) originated from the communal violence between Arakanese and Rohingya Muslims during World War II in 1942.[42] On 28 March 1942, Rohingya Muslims from Northern Arakan massacred around 20,000 Buddhists in Buthidaung and Maungdaw townships. At the same period, around 5,000 Muslims in Minbya and Mrauk-U Townships were also killed by the Arakanese Buddhists .[43] Such violence happened because the British armed Muslim groups in northern Arakan to create a buffer zone from the Japanese invasion when they retreated [44] and Muslims were promised by the British that if they supported the Allies they would be given their own "national area".[45]

Perceptions of the conflict

Burmese Military Regime's policy on Rohingyas as seen by the Amnesty International:[46]

“ The Rohingyas’ freedom of movement is severely restricted and the vast majority of them have effectively been denied Burmese citizenship. They are also subjected to restrictions on more than two childbirths. Rohingyas allegedly continue to be used as forced labourers on roads and at military camps. ”

The interpretation of the Burmese junta's attitude by the Rohingyas:[47]

“ Junta’s policy towards the Muslims of Burma: the ruling military junta practice is to stop Islamisation in Burma by cultural assimilation of illegal Muslims living in Arakans and other parts of Burma. Their main objective is to turn strategic Muslim Arakan into a Burmanised Buddhist region by relocating Muslims in mainland Burma to insignificant or manageable minorities. ”

Jane's World Insurgency and Terrorism subscription service's remark on the causes of Rohingya militant movements:[48]

“ The Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO) aimed to prevent the alleged repression of ethnic Rohingyas in Burma and Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. The group also aimed to establish an Islamic autonomous Arakan state, uniting the Rohingya people of Burma and Bangladesh, by expelling the Burmese Buddhists and military through killings, harassment and the classical tactics of guerrilla warfare. ”

"A Hand Book of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia" assumes that human rights violations on Rohingyas by the Burmese junta such as restriction on mobility, Rohingyas' and evictions, settlement of non-Rohingya model villages near the Muslim areas, registration of births and deaths, and restriction of more than two child bearing marriage are the causes of the Rohingya insurgency.[39]

But, in the early 1970s, it is found that the Rohingya militant movements re-appeared during the Bangladesh Liberation War along with the formation of a new country of Bangladesh like the emergence of Mujahideen movements in 1947-1950s along with the formation of East Pakistan. In the beginning of the 1970s during Bangladesh Liberation War, there was an extent of illegal immigration from Bangladesh to Western Burma and reaction against illegal immigration were carried out by the Burmese government. Such kind of initial reactions later led the Ne Win government towards the oppression against infiltrators in western Burma not only illegal immigrants but also on local radicalised Rohingyas in the late 1970s campaign on Rohingyas in 1978). After 1988, new military regime which took power in Burma allegedly committed various kinds of human rights abuses and violations against different ethnic groups of Burma; and, as a bitter result, Rohingyas also became victims like many other Burmese ethnic groups.[49]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Faith Movement of Arakan (FMA) / Aqa Mul Mujahidin / Harakat al-Yaqin / Kebangkitan Mujahid Rohingya - groups of southwestern Myanmar | Terrorist Groups | TRAC". www.trackingterrorism.org. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
  2. 1 2 Defence Services Historical Museum and Research Institute
  3. 1 2 CNN, Katie Hunt. "Myanmar Air Force helicopters fire on armed villagers in Rakhine state". CNN. Retrieved 15 November 2016.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Yegar, Moshe (2002). "Between integration and secession: The Muslim communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar". Lanham. Lexington Books. p. 37,38,44. ISBN 0739103563. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  5. 1 2 "Myanmar policemen killed in Rakhine border attack". BBC News. 9 October 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  6. 1 2 "Islamist fears rise in Rohingya-linked violence". Bangkok Post. Post Publishing PCL. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Slodkowski, Antoni (15 November 2016). "Myanmar army says 86 killed in fighting in northwest". Reuters India. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
  8. ↑ "8 killed in surge of Rakhine violence: Tatmadaw". Frontier Myanmar. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  9. ↑ "Myanmar: 28 killed in new violence in Rakhine state". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  10. ↑ "Eight dead in clashes between Myanmar army and militants in Rakhine". The Guardian. 13 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  11. ↑ "Eight dead in clashes between Myanmar army and militants in Rakhine". Reuters. 13 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  12. 1 2 "Myanmar Army Evacuates Villagers, Teachers From Hostilities in Maungdaw". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
  13. ↑ "Rakhine: Myanmar urged to allow aid into restive state". BBC News. 21 October 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  14. 1 2 3 "Rohingyas and the Right to have Rights". Archived from the original on 14 August 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  15. ↑ Yegar, Moshe (1972). Muslims of Burma. Wiesbaden: Verlag Otto Harrassowitz. p. 96.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Yegar, Moshe (1972). Muslims of Burma. pp. 98–101.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Pho Kan Kaung (May 1992). The Danger of Rohingya. Myet Khin Thit Magazine No. 25. pp. 87–103.
  18. 1 2 "Rakhine unrest leaves four Myanmar soldiers dead". BBC News. 12 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
  19. 1 2 3 Thit Maung, Yebaw (1989). Civil Insurgency in Burma. Yangon: Ministry of Information. p. 30.
  20. ↑ Aye Chan (2–3 June 2011). On the Mujahid Rebellion in Arakan read in the International Conference of Southeast Asian Studies at Pusan University of Foreign Studies, Republic of Korea.
  21. ↑ Thit Maung, Yebaw (1989). Civil Insurgency in Burma. Yangon: Ministry of Information. p. 28.
  22. ↑ Yegar, Moshe (2002). "Between integration and secession: The Muslim communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar". Lanham. Lexington Books. pp. 44–45. ISBN 0739103563. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  23. ↑ Khit Yay Tatmaw Journal. Yangon: Burmese Army. 18 July 1961. p. 5.
  24. ↑ "Rohingya the easy prey". The Daily Star. 9 May 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Bangladesh Extremist Islamist Consolidation". by Bertil Lintner. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  26. ↑ Jihad: 'The ultimate thermonuclear bomb' by Pepe Escobar, Oct 2001, Asia Times.
  27. ↑ Lintner, Bertil (1999). Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency Since 1948,. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. pp. 317–8.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 "Bangladesh: Breeding ground for Muslim terror". by Bertil Lintner. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  29. 1 2 Lintner, Bertil (19 October 1991). Tension Mounts in Arakan State. This news-story was based on interview with Rohingyas and others in the Cox’s Bazaar area and at the Rohingya military camps in 1991: Jane’s Defence Weekly.
  30. ↑ "Rohingya Terrorists Plant Bombs, Burn Houses in Maungdaw". Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  31. ↑ "Rohingyas trained in different Al-Qaeda and Taliban camps in Afghanistan". By William Gomes. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  32. ↑ "Myanmar: Fears of violence after deadly border attack". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
  33. ↑ "Myanmar arms non-Muslim civilians in Rakhine". www.aljazeera.com. 3 November 2016. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
  34. ↑ "The Rohingya: A humanitarian crisis". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
  35. ↑ "These migrants left their homes to save their lives". The Straits Times. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
  36. ↑ Lintner, Bertil (1972). Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency Since 1948. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. pp. 317–8.
  37. ↑ "Burmese Citizenship Law". Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  38. ↑ Lall, Marie (23 November 2009). Ethnic Conflict and the 2010 Elections in Burma. Chatham House.
  39. 1 2 Syed, Serajul Islam (2007). "State Terrorism in Arakan" in A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia (edited by: Andrew Tan). Cheltenham Glos, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. p. 328. ISBN 9781845425432. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
  40. ↑ "Book Review: Muslims of Burma by Moshe Yegar". Good Reads. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
  41. ↑ Burmese Encyclopedia. Yangon: Burma Translation Society. 1963. p. 167.
  42. ↑ Aye Chan (2005). "The Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan (Rakhine) State of Burma (Myanmar)" (PDF). SOAS. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
  43. ↑ Kyaw Zan Tha, MA (July 2008). "Background of Rohingya Problem": 1.
  44. ↑ Field-Marshal Viscount William Slim (2009). Defeat Into Victory: Battling Japan in Burma and India, 1942-1945. London: Pan. ISBN 0330509977.
  45. ↑ Howard Adelman (2008). Protracted displacement in Asia: no place to call home. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 86. ISBN 0754672387. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
  46. ↑ "Myanmar - The Rohingya Minority: Fundamental Rights Denied". Archived from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  47. ↑ "Arakan Rohingya National Organization (ARNO)". Archived from the original on 30 July 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  48. ↑ "Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO) (Bangladesh), GROUPS - ASIA - ACTIVE". Archived from the original on 22 January 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  49. ↑ "Facts on Human Rights Violation in Burma". Archived from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.

Further reading

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