Planning of the September 11 attacks

On September 11, 2001, 19 Arab hijackers took control of four commercial aircraft and used them as suicide weapons in a series of four coordinated acts of terrorism to strike the World Trade Center in New York City, the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, and an additional target in Washington, D.C. Two aircraft hit the World Trade Center while the third hit the Pentagon. However, one plane never arrived at its target, believed to be either the United States Capitol or the White House. As a result, 2,977 victims were killed, making it the most deadly terrorist attack on U.S. soil; also the deadliest foreign attack on U.S. soil since Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. It was carefully planned by al-Qaeda, who sent 19 terrorists to take over Boeing 757 and Boeing 767 aircraft, operated by American Airlines and United Airlines.

Background

Al-Qaeda's origins date back to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.[1] Soon after the invasion, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahadeen. Together with Abdullah Azzam, a Palestinian-Jordanian who influenced bin Laden, they formed Maktab al-Khidamat (MAK) in 1984, to provide support for Arab mujahadeen who came to join the jihad in Afghanistan.[1]

Towards the end of the 1980s, the Soviets were retreating in defeat. Bin Laden and Azzam had discussions about the future of MAK and what to do with the mujahadeen force that had built up. Bin Laden and Azzam both wanted to use the force as a "rapid reaction force" to defend oppressed Muslims around the world. Bin Laden wanted to train the mujahadeen in terrorist tactics, while Azzam strongly disagreed with this approach, issuing a fatwa saying that it would violate Islamic law. Azzam reiterated the hadith that orders Muslims not to kill any women or children.[2]

In November 1989, soon after bin Laden and Azzam split, Azzam was killed in Peshawar, Pakistan. Azzam and his two sons were travelling to Jummah (Friday prayer) when a remote-control activated bomb detonated and killed them. It is not known for certain if bin Laden was behind this, but thought unlikely. Nonetheless, bin Laden was free to take full control of MAK, laying groundwork for Al-Qaeda.[3] Under guidance of Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical.[4]

In 1991, bin Laden moved to the Sudan, where he led operations in East Africa, including the 1993 assault on American troops at Mogadishu in Somalia. Under international pressure, the Sudanese forced bin Laden out of Sudan in 1996, and he returned to Afghanistan.

Ideology

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 marked a point where bin Laden turned his attention toward the United States. He strongly urged the Saudi regime not to host the 500,000 American troops, instead advocating the use of a mujahidin force to oust the Iraqis. Bin Laden strongly opposed the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia. He interpreted the Prophet Muhammad as banning the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia".[5] This is why bin Laden attacked American military targets in Saudi Arabia. Also, the date chosen for the 1998 Kenyan embassy bombings (August 7), was eight years to the day that American troops were sent to Saudi Arabia.[6]

Bin Laden also stated that he viewed the House of Saud (the Saudi royal family) as apostates.[5] In Islam, the charge of apostasy is made against Muslims that have become non-believers and reject Islam. Bin Laden also objects to American alliances with the governments of Kuwait, Jordan, and Egypt.

He viewed Israelis as infidels, who are not welcome in "Muslim land". He objected to U.S. foreign policy in relation to Israel. He noted that key figures Madeleine Albright, Sandy Berger, and William Cohen, who were all Jewish, "drove Washington's undoubtedly pro-Israel policy" during the Clinton administration.[7]

Fatwas

In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for American troops to get out of Saudi Arabia. In Islam, a fatwa can only be given by an Islamic scholar; however, Osama bin Laden was a political fighter who used Islam to motivate his fighters. The 1998 United States Embassy bombings marked a turning point, with bin Laden intent on attacking the United States.[8] Bin Laden issued another fatwa in February 1998, together with Ayman al Zawahiri, declaring war against Americans. Bin Laden stated "We do not have to differentiate between military or civilian. As far as we are concerned, they [Americans] are all targets." Bin Laden cited grievances including the presence of American infidels (troops) in the Saudi holy land, suffering of Iraqi people due to sanctions imposed after the Gulf War, and U.S. support of Israel. In the December 1999 interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai, bin Laden reiterated his ideology and objected to America's military presence in Saudi Arabia. He proclaimed that Americans were "too near to Mecca", which he considered a provocation to the entire Muslim world.[9] He also believed Israel "was killing and punishing Palestinians with American money and American arms."[9]

Origins of the 9/11 attacks

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed first presented the idea for the September 11 plot to bin Laden in 1996 in Afghanistan.[10] However, nothing came of the idea at the time.

According to the September 11 Commission, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed envisioned a hijacking of twelve planes on both the East and West coasts, and for eleven of them to be crashed into the World Trade Center and the Empire State Building in New York City; the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia; the Prudential Tower in Boston, Massachusetts; the White House and the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C; the Willis Tower (then Sears Tower) in Chicago, Illinois; the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles, California; the Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco, California; and the Columbia Center in Seattle, Washington.[11][12]

In December 1998, the Director of Central Intelligence Counterterrorist Center reported to President Bill Clinton that Al-Qaeda was preparing for attacks in the United States, including the training of personnel to hijack aircraft.[13]

In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden summoned Khalid Sheikh Mohammed to Kandahar and gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with the plot.[14]

A series of meetings occurred in spring of 1999, involving Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Osama bin Laden, and his deputy Mohammed Atef.[14] Bin Laden recommended four individuals for the plot, including Nawaf al-Hazmi, Khalid al-Mihdhar, Walid Muhammad Salih Bin 'Attash (Khallad), and Abu Bara al-Taizi. Al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar were both Saudi citizens, thus making it simple for them to obtain U.S. visas. Khallad and al-Taizi were both Yemeni citizens, thus not able to easily obtain visas to the United States. The two Yemenis were assigned for the Asia component of the plot. When Mohamed Atta and other members of the Hamburg cell arrived in Afghanistan, bin Laden was involved in selecting them for the plot, and assigning Atta to be the leader.[15]

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was the head of Al-Qaeda's 'military committee'.[16] He provided operational support, such as selecting targets and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.[14] Khalid Sheikh Mohammed explained to Fouda, "We had a large surplus of brothers willing to die as martyrs. As we studied various targets, nuclear facilities arose as a key option"... but the nuclear targets were dropped for concerns the plan would "get out of hand."[17]

Hamburg cell

Mohamed Atta, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Marwan al-Shehhi and Ziad Jarrah came into the picture in 1999, when they arrived in Kandahar from Germany. The Hamburg cell was formed starting in 1998 shortly after Mohammed got approval by Al-Qaeda leadership for his plot. Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Said Bahaji, Zakariyah Essabar, and fifteen others were all members.

Mohamed Atta was very religious, but not fanatically so when he came to Germany in Fall 1992 to study urban planning at the Technical University of Hamburg.[18] While in Germany, he was drawn to Al Quds Mosque in Hamburg, which adheres to a "harsh, uncompromisingly fundamentalist, and resoundingly militant" version of Sunni Islam.[19] A friend of Atta's recalled meeting him at the Al-Quds mosque in 1993, though it is not known when he started going there. Atta had always lived as a strict Muslim, but after making a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1995, he returned to Germany more of a fanatic than ever before. Also in late 1997, Mohamed Atta told his roommate that he was going to Mecca, but he most likely went to Afghanistan instead. Atta had already made his Mecca pilgrimage 18 months earlier. According to Al Jazeera journalist Yosri Fouda, Atta went to the mosque around this time "not to pray but to sign his death will." He is known to have attended Al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan in 1999 and 2000.[20]

Ramzi bin al-Shibh, who also went under the name "Ramzi Omar", was a citizen of Yemen. In 1995, he came to Germany seeking asylum, claiming to be a political refugee from Sudan. The judge refused the asylum request, and bin al-Shibh returned to the Hadramawt region of Yemen. Bin al-Shibh later got a German visa under his real name, and came to Germany in 1997. There, he met Mohamed Atta, the leader of the Hamburg cell, at a mosque.[21] For two years, Atta and bin al-Shibh were roommates in Germany.[21] In late 1999, bin al-Shibh traveled to Kandahar in Afghanistan, where he received training at Al-Qaeda training camps, and met others involved in planning the 9/11 attacks.[21] Original plans for the 9/11 attacks called for bin al-Shibh to be one of the hijacker pilots, along with Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, and Ziad Jarrah. From Hamburg, Germany, bin al-Shibh applied to take flight training in the United States. At that time, he also applied to Aviation Language Services, which provides language training for student pilots.[22] Bin al-Shibh applied for an entry visa to the United States, four times, and was refused each time. He made visa applications in Germany on May 17, 2000, and again in June, on September 16, and October 25, 2000.[22][23] According to the 9/11 Commission, this refusal of a visa was out of general concern by U.S. officials that people from Yemen would illegally overstay their visit and seek work in the United States. His friend, Zakariyah Essabar, was also denied visas. After he failed to enter the United States, bin al-Shibh took on more of a "coordinator" role in the plot, and a link between Atta in the United States and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in Afghanistan.[16][24]

Marwan al-Shehhi came to Bonn, Germany in 1996, on scholarship from the United Arab Emirates Army to study marine engineering.[25] Al-Shehhi met Atta in 1997, and in 1998, he moved to Hamburg to join Atta and bin al-Shibh.[26] As the son of a religiously trained father, al-Shehhi was very religious, well-educated in Islam, and adhered to a strict form of the faith.[27] However, he had a friendlier, more humorous personality than Atta, who was very serious and more reclusive.[28]

Ziad Jarrah came from Lebanon to Germany in April 1996, where he enrolled in a junior college in Greifswald. There, he met his girlfriend, Aysel Senguen, a medical student. By late 1996, Jarrah started to become radical in his religious views. In September 1997, he transferred to the Technical University of Hamburg to study aircraft engineering. In the summer of that year, he worked at a paint shop factory for Volkswagen in Wolfsburg.

Other members of the Hamburg cell included Said Bahaji, who came to Germany in 1995. He had been born there, but moved to Morocco at age 9. In 1996, Said Bahaji enrolled in the electrical engineering program at the technical university. He spent weekdays at a student home and weekends at the home of his aunt, Barbara Arens. Arens, his "high tech aunt", stopped the weekend visits when she saw his religious beliefs had become more radical.

Selection for 9/11 plot

In 1999, this group decided to go to Chechnya to fight. While still in Germany, they met Khalid al Masri who put the group in contact with Abu Musab in Duisburg, Germany. Abu Musab turned out to be Mohamedou Ould Slahi, an important Al-Qaeda operative. Slahi advised them that it would be difficult to get into Chechnya and advised them instead to go to Afghanistan for training first. In late 1999, the Hamburg group met with bin Laden, and pledged loyalty to him. They agreed to undertake a highly secret mission, and were told to enroll in flight training. Atta was selected by bin Laden to lead the group. Bin Laden met with Atta several more times for additional instructions. The selection of hijackers was entirely a decision made by bin Laden and Mohammed Atef. The hijackers had not yet met with Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. At the time, the hijacking team also included Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, who were selected in early 1999 by Osama bin Laden.[14]

Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah all obtained new passports, claiming the old ones were lost, before applying for U.S. visas. Atta, Jarrah, and bin al-Shibh returned to Hamburg, early in 2000, while al-Shehhi went back to the United Arab Emirates to get a new passport and U.S. visa. Once back in Germany, they made efforts to appear less radical: they distanced themselves from the others, stopped attending extremist mosques, and changed their appearance and behavior. Jarrah, for example, began to behave more the way he did when he first met Senguen.

Arrival in the United States

Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi arrived in Los Angeles on January 15, 2000.[29] On January 18, Marwan al-Shehhi applied for a visa into the United States while he was in the United Arab Emirates. He was the first member to apply for a visa in the Hamburg cell.

By the end of June, Atta, Jarrah, and al-Shehhi left for the United States. Bin al-Shibh and Essabar wanted to join Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah, but they were denied U.S. visas several times. Bin al-Shibh's visa was denied since he was a citizen of Yemen. He made several more attempts at receiving a U.S. visa. One such attempt was a $2,200 deposit he had sent to the Florida Flight Training Center, on a down payment for a similar training course taken by Ziad Jarrah.[30] He used that application as a basis for a new attempt to get a student visa, as opposed to the visitor visa he had sought previously. On another occasion, he arranged for several thousand dollars to be deposited in his Yemen bank account, to demonstrate financial wherewithal. After his final attempt failed, he was advised by a consular official that they could not help him, and to stop trying. It was then that Bin al-Shibh decided to support the cell by sending money to it. Mohammed was making repeated trips to Indonesia and the Philippines in Southeast Asia at the time. Jarrah nearly abandoned his role in the plot and probably would have been replaced by Zacarias Moussaoui had he done so.

A man named Omar al-Bayoumi was in San Diego, California since 1995.[31] He was raising a family and received a monthly stipend from his former employer, an aviation company in Saudi Arabia.[31] He was seen regularly videotaping various locations. Al-Bayoumi was quick to house immigrants who needed housing. In 2000, he settled in Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar. According to al-Hazmi, al-Bayoumi met him and al-Mihdhar at a restaurant in Los Angeles. Al-Bayoumi offered a ride to San Diego after he heard the men speak Arabic. Al-Bayoumi threw the men a welcome party and al-Hazmi, who said he was in the United States to learn English, signed a six-month lease. He often surfed the Internet from the San Diego State University Library.

The first two months of the lease were paid for, yet the men complained that the lease was too expensive. In the spring, al-Hazmi told a friend that someone was going to wire $5000 to him, and that the money would come from Saudi Arabia. Al-Hazmi told his friend that he had no account. The friend allowed him to use his account, and later found that the money came from a man named "Ali", and that it didn't originate from the United States. The two men wanted to take flight lessons, which is why they got the money. A friend took them to Montgomery Field and arranged lessons for them. They took a single flight lesson and did not return. Fereidoun "Fred" Sorbi, the instructor, recalled, "The first day they came in here, they said they want to fly Boeings. We said you have to start slower. You can't just jump right into Boeings."

Al-Hazmi had season passes to the San Diego Zoo and SeaWorld. The men frequented a men's club in San Diego called Cheetah's, which is near the Islamic Center. Al-Mihdhar and al-Hazmi frequently drove to Las Vegas in the Toyota sedan they bought.

Flight training

In March 2000, Mohamed Atta contacted the Academy of Lakeland in Florida, via e-mail, inquiring about flight training, "Dear sir, we are a small group of young men from different Arab countries. Now we are living in Germany since a while for study purposes. We would like to start training for the career of airline professional pilots. In this field we haven't yet any knowledge but we are ready to undergo an intensive training program (up to ATP and eventually higher)." He sent 50–60 similar e-mails to other flight training schools in the United States.[22]

On May 18, 2000, Atta applied for and received a U.S. visa.[22] After obtaining his visa, Atta traveled to Prague before going to the United States. Atta, along with Marwan al-Shehhi arrived in Venice, Florida, and visited Huffman Aviation to "check out the facility." They explained that "they came from a flight school in the area, they were not happy and they were looking for another flight school".[32] By December, Atta and al-Shehhi left Huffman Aviation, and on December 21, Atta received a pilot license.[33]

Final preparations

About three weeks prior to the attacks, the targets were assigned to four teams. The United States Capitol/The White House was called "The Faculty of Law". The Pentagon was dubbed "The Faculty of Fine Arts". Atta codenamed the World Trade Center "The Faculty of Town Planning".[34]

Financial support

The 9/11 Commission stated in their final report that the "9/11 plotters eventually spent somewhere between $400,000 and $500,000 to plan and conduct their attack" but the "origin of the funds remains unknown." The Commission noted: "we have seen no evidence that any foreign government-or foreign government official-supplied any funding."[35]

CNN claimed in October 2001 that U.S. investigators believed Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh (Ahmed Umar Syed Sheikh), using the alias Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad, sent more than $100,000 from Pakistan to Mohamed Atta, the suspected hijack ringleader of the September 11, 2001 attacks.

"Investigators said Atta then distributed the funds to conspirators in Florida in the weeks before the deadliest acts of terrorism on U.S. soil that destroyed the World Trade Center, heavily damaged the Pentagon and left thousands dead [...] Syed also is described as a key figure in the funding operation of Al-Qaeda, the network headed by suspected terrorist mastermind Osama bin Laden."[36]

The Pittsburgh Tribune noted "There are many in Musharraf's government who believe that Saeed Sheikh's power comes not from the ISI, but from his connections with our own CIA."[37]

CNN later confirmed that it was "Ahmed Umar Syed Sheikh, whom [sic] authorities say used a pseudonym to wire $100,000 to suspected hijacker Mohammad Atta, who then distributed the money in the United States."[38]

Soon after the money transfer was discovered, the head of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence, Gen. Mahmood (Mahmud) Ahmed, resigned from his position. Indian news outlets reported the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was investigating the possibility that Gen. Mahmood Ahmed ordered Saeed Sheikh to send the $100,000 to Atta, while most Western media outlets only reported his connections to the Taliban as the reason for his departure from the ISI.

The Wall Street Journal was one of the few Western news organizations to follow up on the story, citing the Times of India: "US authorities sought [Gen. Mahmud Ahmed's] removal after confirming the fact that $100,000 [was] wired to WTC hijacker Mohamed Atta from Pakistan by Ahmad Umar Sheikh at the instance of Gen Mahmud."[39] The best coverage came from The Daily Excelsior, reporting "The FBI’s examination of the hard disk of the cellphone company Omar Sheikh had subscribed to led to the discovery of the "link" between him and the deposed chief of the Pakistani ISI, Gen. Mehmood Ahmed. And as the FBI investigators delved deep, sensational information surfaced with regard to the transfer of $100,000 to Mohamed Atta, one of the Kamikaze pilots who flew a Boeing into the World Trade Center. Gen. Mehmood Ahmed, the FBI investigators found, fully knew about the transfer of money to Atta."[40]

According to the Washington Post, "on the morning of Sept. 11, [Porter] Goss and [Bob] Graham were having breakfast with a Pakistani general named Mahmud Ahmed -- the soon-to-be-sacked head of Pakistan's intelligence service"[41] On September 12 and 13, Lt. Gen. Mahmood met with United States Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage, Senator Joseph Biden, the Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and Secretary of State Colin Powell. An agreement on Pakistan's collaboration in the new "war on terror" was negotiated between Mahmood and Armitage.[42][43][44][45]

Lt Gen Mehmood Ahmed then led a six-member delegation to the Afghan city of Kandahar in order to hold crisis talks with the Taliban leadership, supposedly in an attempt to persuade them to hand over Osama bin Laden.

In June 2001, a "high-placed member of a US intelligence agency" told BBC reporter Greg Palast that "after the [2000] elections, the agencies were told to "back off" investigating the bin Ladens and Saudi royals".[46]

In May 2002, former FBI Agent Robert Wright, Jr. delivered a tearful press conference apologizing to the families who lost loved ones on September 11. He described how his superiors intentionally obstructed his investigation into Al-Qaeda financing.[47][48]

Agent Wright later told ABC's Brian Ross: "September 11th is a direct result of the incompetence of the FBI's International Terrorism Unit", specifically referring to the Bureau's hindering of his investigation into Yasin al-Qadi, whom Ross described as a powerful Saudi Arabian businessman with extensive financial ties in Chicago.[49] One month after September 11, the US government officially identified Yassin al-Qadi as one of Osama bin Laden's primary financiers and a Specially Designated Global Terrorist.[50]

In an interview with Computerworld Magazine, a former business associate described his relationship with al-Qadi: "I met him a few times and talked to him a few times on the telephone. He never talked to me about violence. Instead, he talked very highly of his relationship with [former President] Jimmy Carter and [Vice President] Dick Cheney."[51]

The Muwafaq Foundation, which U.S. authorities have confirmed was an arm of bin Laden's terror organization, was headed by Yassin al-Qadi,[52] who was also known as the owner of Ptech[53]—a company that has supplied high-tech computer systems to the FBI, the Internal Revenue Service, the United States Congress, the United States Army, the Navy, the Air Force, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the White House. A former FBI counter-terrorism agent commented: "For someone like [al-Qadi] to be involved in a capacity, in an organization, a company that has access to classified information, that has access to government open or classified computer systems, would be of grave concern." Also sitting on Ptech's board of directors was Yacub Mirza— "a senior official of major radical Islamic organizations that have been linked by the US government to terrorism." In addition, Hussein Ibrahim, the Vice President and Chief Scientist of Ptech, was vice chairman of a now defunct investment group called BMI, a company the FBI has named as a conduit used by al-Qadi to launder money to Hamas militants.[54]

According to Senator Bob Graham, who was chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee from June 2001 through the buildup to the Iraq war, "Two of the Sept. 11, 2001, hijackers had a support network in the United States that included agents of the Saudi government, and the Bush administration and FBI blocked a congressional investigation into that relationship", as reported by the Miami Herald.

"And in Graham's book, Intelligence Matters, obtained by The Herald Saturday, he makes clear that some details of that financial support from Saudi Arabia were in the 27 pages of the congressional inquiry's final report that were blocked from release by the administration, despite the pleas of leaders of both parties on the House and Senate intelligence committees."[55]

References

  1. 1 2 Gunaratna, Ronan (2002). Inside Al Qaeda. Berkley Books.
  2. ↑ Gunaratna, Ronan (2002). Inside Al Qaeda. Berkley Books. pp. 29–30.
  3. ↑ Gunaratna, Ronan (2002). Inside Al Qaeda. Berkley Books. p. 31.
  4. ↑ Gunaratna, Ronan (2002). Inside Al Qaeda. Berkley Books. p. 33.
  5. 1 2 Bergen, Peter L. (2001). Holy War Inc. Simon & Schuster. p. 3.
  6. ↑ Plotz, David (2001) What Does Osama Bin Laden Want?, Slate
  7. ↑ Bergen, Peter L. (2001). Holy War Inc. Simon & Schuster. p. 5.
  8. ↑ 9/11 Commission Report,Chapter 5
  9. 1 2 Yusufzai, Rahimullah (September 26, 2001). "Face to face with Osama". London: The Guardian. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  10. ↑ Suspect 'reveals 9/11 planning', BBC News
  11. ↑ "Outline of the 9-11 Plot, Staff Statement No. 16," (PDF). National Commission on Terrorist Attacks. June 16, 2004: 13. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
  12. ↑ Kiger, Patrick J. (September 7, 2011). "The Original Plans for 9/11". National Geographic. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
  13. ↑ "Bin Ladin Preparing to Hijack US Aircraft and Other Attacks". Director of Central Intelligence. 1998-12-04. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  14. 1 2 3 4 National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. "Chapter 5". 9/11 Commission Report.
  15. ↑ Bergen, Peter (2006). The Osama bin Laden I Know. Free Press. p. 283.
  16. 1 2 "Al-Jazeera reporter speaks on terrorist plans". Lateline / ABC (Australia). September 30, 2002.
  17. ↑ "Al-Jazeera offers accounts of 9/11 planning". CNN. September 12, 2002. Archived from the original on May 1, 2007.
  18. ↑ Bergen, Peter L. (2001). Holy War Inc. Simon & Schuster. p. 37.
  19. ↑ McDermott, Terry (2005). Perfect Soldiers. Harper. pp. 2–3.
  20. ↑ Atta 'trained in Afghanistan', BBC News, August 24, 2002.
  21. 1 2 3 Ramzi bin al-Shibh: al-Qaeda suspect, BBC, September 14, 2002
  22. 1 2 3 4 Zacarias Moussauoi v. the United States, trial testimony on March 7, 2006.
  23. ↑ Indictment of Zacarias Moussaoui, with supporting conspirators, Ramzi bin al-Shibh and Mustafa al-Hawsawi. Filed in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia.
  24. ↑ "The Mastermind". CBS News. March 5, 2003.
  25. ↑ McDermott, Terry (2005). Perfect Soldiers. Harper Collins. p. 53.
  26. ↑ 9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 5, p. 162
  27. ↑ McDermott, Terry (2005). Perfect Soldiers. Harper Collins. pp. 54–55.
  28. ↑ McDermott, Terry (2005). Perfect Soldiers. Harper Collins. p. 54.
  29. ↑ "A Review of the FBI's Handling of Intelligence Information Prior to the September 11 Attacks". Office of the Inspector General. November 2004. Retrieved May 19, 2015.
  30. ↑ Rubin, Daniel (September 22, 2001). "Germany issues warrants for 2 believed linked to hijackings". Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved May 19, 2015.
  31. 1 2 McDermott, Terry (September 1, 2002). "The Plot". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 19, 2015.
  32. ↑ "Rudi Dekkers Interview". A Mission to Die For / ABC (Australia). October 21, 2001.
  33. ↑ Cloud, John (September 30, 2001). "Atta's Odyssey". Time.
  34. ↑ "CNN.com". CNN. September 12, 2002. Archived from the original on November 12, 2007. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  35. ↑ "National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States". 9-11commission.gov. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  36. ↑ "Suspected hijack bankroller freed by India in '99". CNN. October 6, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
  37. ↑ Sunday, March 3, 2002 (2002-03-03). "Did Pearl die because Pakistan deceived CIA? - Pittsburgh Tribune-Review". Pittsburghlive.com. Archived from the original on February 15, 2006. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  38. ↑ "India wants terror spotlight on Kashmir". CNN. October 8, 2001. Archived from the original on June 4, 2009. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  39. ↑ "The Wall Street Journal Online - Best of the Web Today". Opinionjournal.com. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  40. ↑ Daily Excelsior News Page Archived December 12, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
  41. ↑ Leiby, Richard (May 18, 2002). "A Cloak But No Dagger". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  42. ↑ Archived April 4, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
  43. ↑ Archived May 6, 2004, at the Wayback Machine.
  44. ↑ Archived September 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  45. ↑ Archived May 6, 2004, at the Wayback Machine.
  46. ↑ "Greg Palest report transcript - 6/11/01". BBC News. November 8, 2001. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  47. ↑ Jim Crogan (2002-07-31). "Another FBI Agent Blows the Whistle - Page 1 - News - Los Angeles". LA Weekly. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  48. ↑ "History Commons". Cooperativeresearch.org. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
  49. ↑ "Primetime Investigation FBI Terrorist Cover Up". Billstclair.com. 2002-12-19. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  50. ↑ "Fact Sheet: Updated State Dept List of Identified Terrorists and Groups". Fas.org. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  51. ↑ Archived September 3, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
  52. ↑ "Wahhabis in the Old Dominion". Theweeklystandard.com. 2002-04-08. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  53. ↑ "Customs searches software firm near Boston". CNN. December 6, 2002. Archived from the original on July 23, 2009. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  54. ↑ Archived October 3, 2003, at the Wayback Machine.
  55. ↑ Archived December 20, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
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