Pioneer 11

Pioneer 11

An artist's impression of a Pioneer spacecraft on its way to interstellar space.
Mission type	Planetary and heliosphere exploration
Operator	NASA / ARC
COSPAR ID	1973-019A
SATCAT №	6421
Website	Pioneer Project website(archived) NASA Archive page
Mission duration	22 years, 5 months, 25 days
Spacecraft properties
Manufacturer	TRW
Launch mass	259 kilograms (571 lb)
Power	155 watts (at launch)
Start of mission
Launch date	April 6, 1973, 02:11:00 (1973-04-06UTC02:11Z) UTC
Rocket	Atlas SLV-3D Centaur-D1A Star-37E
Launch site	Cape Canaveral LC-36B
End of mission
Last contact	September 30, 1995 (1995-10-01)
Flyby of Jupiter
Closest approach	December 3, 1974
Distance	43,000 kilometers (27,000 miles)
Flyby of Saturn
Closest approach	September 1, 1979
Distance	21,000 kilometers (13,000 miles)

Pioneer 11 (also known as Pioneer G) is a 259-kilogram (571 lb) robotic space probe launched by NASA on April 6, 1973 to study the asteroid belt, the environment around Jupiter and Saturn, solar wind, cosmic rays, and eventually the far reaches of the Solar System and heliosphere.^[1] It was the first probe to encounter Saturn and the second to fly through the asteroid belt and by Jupiter. Due to power constraints and the vast distance to the probe, last contact with the spacecraft was on September 30, 1995.^[2]

Mission background

History

Approved in February 1969, Pioneer 11 and its twin probe Pioneer 10 were the first to be designed for exploring the outer Solar System. Yielding to multiple proposals throughout the 1960s, early mission objectives were defined as:

• Explore the interplanetary medium beyond the orbit of Mars
• Investigate the nature of the asteroid belt from the scientific standpoint and assess the belt's possible hazard to missions to the outer planets.
• Explore the environment of Jupiter.

Subsequent planning for an encounter with Saturn added many more goals:

• Map the magnetic field of Saturn and determine its intensity, direction, and structure.
• Determine how many electrons and protons of various energies are distributed along the trajectory of the spacecraft through the Saturn system.
• Map the interaction of the Saturn system with the solar wind.
• Measure the temperature of Saturn's atmosphere and that of Titan, the largest satellite of Saturn.
• Determine the structure of the upper atmosphere of Saturn where molecules are expected to be electrically charged and form an ionosphere.
• Map the thermal structure of Saturn's atmosphere by infrared observations coupled with radio occultation data.
• Obtain spin-scan images of the Saturnian system in two colors during the encounter sequence and polarimetry measurements of the planet.
• Probe the ring system and the atmosphere of Saturn with S-band radio occultation.
• Determine more precisely the masses of Saturn and its larger satellites by accurate observations of the effects of their gravitational fields on the motion of the spacecraft.
• As a precursor to the Mariner Jupiter/Saturn mission, verify the environment of the ring plane to find out where it may be safely crossed by the Mariner spacecraft without serious damage.^[3]

Pioneer 11 was built by TRW and managed as part of the Pioneer program by NASA Ames Research Center.^[4] A backup unit, Pioneer H, is currently on display in the "Milestones of Flight" exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C..^[5] Many elements of the mission proved to be critical in the planning of the Voyager Program.^[6]:266–8

Spacecraft design

The Pioneer 11 bus measured 36 centimeters (14 in) deep and with six 76-centimeter-long (30 in) panels forming the hexagonal structure. The bus housed propellant to control the orientation of the probe and eight of the twelve scientific instruments. The spacecraft had a mass of 260 kilograms.^[1]:42

Attitude control and propulsion

Orientation of the spacecraft was maintained with six 4.5-N,^[7] hydrazine monopropellant thrusters: pair one maintained a constant spin-rate of 4.8 rpm, pair two controlled the forward thrust, pair three controlled attitude. Information for the orientation was provided by performing conical scanning maneuvers to track Earth in its orbit,^[8] a star sensor able to reference Canopus, and two Sun sensors.^[1]:42–43

Communications

The space probe included a redundant system of transceivers, one attached to the high-gain antenna, the other to an omni-antenna and medium-gain antenna. Each transceiver was 8 watts and transmitted data across the S-band using 2110 MHz for the uplink from Earth and 2292 MHz for the downlink to Earth with the Deep Space Network tracking the signal. Prior to transmitting data, the probe used a convolutional encoder to allow correction of errors in the received data on Earth.^[1]:43

Power

Pioneer 11 used four SNAP-19 radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) (see diagram). They were positioned on two three-rod trusses, each 3 meters (9 feet 10 inches) in length and 120 degrees apart. This was expected to be a safe distance from the sensitive scientific experiments carried on board. Combined, the RTGs provided 155 watts at launch, and decayed to 140 W in transit to Jupiter. The spacecraft required 100 W to power all systems.^[1]:44–45

Computer

Much of the computation for the mission was performed on Earth and transmitted to the probe, where it was able to retain in memory, up to five commands of the 222 possible entries by ground controllers. The spacecraft included two command decoders and a command distribution unit, a very limited form of processor, to direct operations on the spacecraft. This system required that mission operators prepare commands long in advance of transmitting them to the probe. A data storage unit was included to record up to 6,144 bytes of information gathered by the instruments. The digital telemetry unit would then be used to prepare the collected data in one of the thirteen possible formats before transmitting it back to Earth.^[1]:38

Scientific instruments

Helium Vector Magnetometer (HVM)
	Measured the fine structure of the interplanetary magnetic field, mapped the Jovian magnetic field, and provided magnetic field measurements to evaluate solar wind interaction with Jupiter.[9] Principal investigator: Edward Smith / JPL Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive
Quadrispherical Plasma Analyzer
	Peered through a hole in the large dish-shaped antenna to detect particles of the solar wind originating from the Sun.[10] Principal investigator: Aaron Barnes / NASA Ames Research Center (archived website)[11] Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive
Charged Particle Instrument (CPI)
	Detected cosmic rays in the Solar System.[12] Principal investigator: John Simpson / University of Chicago[11] Data: NSSDC data archive
Cosmic Ray Telescope (CRT)
	Collected data on the composition of the cosmic ray particles and their energy ranges.[13] Principal investigator: Frank B. McDonald / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center[11] Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive
Geiger Tube Telescope (GTT)
	Surveyed the intensities, energy spectra, and angular distributions of electrons and protons along the spacecraft's path through the radiation belts of Jupiter and Saturn.[14] Principal investigator: James A. Van Allen / University of Iowa (website)[11] Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive, NSSDC Jupiter data archive
Trapped Radiation Detector (TRD)
	Included an unfocused Cerenkov counter that detected the light emitted in a particular direction as particles passed through it recording electrons of energy, 0.5 to 12 MeV, an electron scatter detector for electrons of energy, 100 to 400 keV, and a minimum ionizing detector consisting of a solid-state diode that measured minimum ionizing particles (<3 MeV) and protons in the range of 50 to 350 MeV.[15] Principal investigator: R. Fillius / University of California San Diego[11] Data: NSSDC hourly data archive, NSSDC Saturn data archive
Meteoroid Detectors
	Twelve panels of pressurized cell detectors mounted on the back of the main dish antenna recorded penetrating impacts of small meteoroids.[16] Principal investigator: William Kinard / NASA Langley Research Center[11] Data: NSSDC data archive list
Asteroid/Meteoroid Detector (AMD)
	Meteoroid-asteroid detector looked into space with four non-imaging telescopes to track particles ranging from close-by bits of dust to distant large asteroids.[17] Principal investigator: Robert Soberman / General Electric Company[11] Data: NSSDC data archive list
Ultraviolet Photometer
	Ultraviolet light was sensed to determine the quantities of hydrogen and helium in space and on Jupiter and Saturn.[18] Principal investigator: Darrell Judge / University of Southern California[11] Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive
Imaging Photopolarimeter (IPP)
	The imaging experiment relied upon the spin of the spacecraft to sweep a small telescope across the planet in narrow strips only 0.03 degrees wide, looking at the planet in red and blue light. These strips were then processed to build up a visual image of the planet.[19] Principal investigator: Tom Gehrels / University of Arizona[11] Data: NSSDC data archive list
Infrared Radiometer
	Provided information on cloud temperature and the output of heat from Jupiter and Saturn.[20] Principal investigator: Andrew Ingersoll / California Institute of Technology[11]
Triaxial Fluxgate Magnetometer
	Measured the magnetic fields of both Jupiter and Saturn. This instrument was not carried on Pioneer 10.[21] Principal investigator: Mario Acuna / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Data: NSSDC data archive list

Mission profile

Pioneer 11 launching from Launch Complex 36A.

Launch and trajectory

The Pioneer 11 probe was launched on April 6, 1973 at 02:11:00 UTC, by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from Space Launch Complex 36A at Cape Canaveral, Florida aboard an Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle. Its twin probe, Pioneer 10, had launched a year earlier on March 3, 1972. Pioneer 11 was launched on a trajectory directly aimed at Jupiter without any prior gravitational assists.^[24]

Encounter with Jupiter

Pioneer 11 flew past Jupiter in November and December 1974. During its closest approach, on December 2, it passed 42,828 kilometers (26,612 mi) above the cloud tops.^[22] The probe obtained detailed images of the Great Red Spot, transmitted the first images of the immense polar regions, and determined the mass of Jupiter's moon Callisto. Using the gravitational pull of Jupiter, a gravity assist was used to alter the trajectory of the probe towards Saturn.

Saturn encounter

Pioneer 11 and Saturn rings on September 1, 1979 (artist's impression)

Artist's impression of Pioneer 11's flyby of Saturn

Pioneer 11 passed by Saturn on September 1, 1979, at a distance of 21,000 km from Saturn's cloud tops.

By this time Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 had already passed Jupiter and were also en route to Saturn, so it was decided to target Pioneer 11 to pass through the Saturn ring plane at the same position that the soon-to-come Voyager probes would use in order to test the route before the Voyagers arrived. If there were faint ring particles that could damage a probe in that area, mission planners felt it was better to learn about it via Pioneer. Thus, Pioneer 11 was acting as a "pioneer" in a true sense of the word; if danger was detected, then the Voyager probes could be rerouted further away from the rings, but missing the opportunity to visit Uranus and Neptune in the process.

Pioneer 11 imaged and nearly collided with one of Saturn's small moons, passing at a distance of no more than 4,000 kilometers (2,500 mi). The object was tentatively identified as Epimetheus, a moon discovered the previous day from Pioneer's imaging, and suspected from earlier observations by Earth-based telescopes. After the Voyager flybys, it became known that there are two similarly-sized moons (Epimetheus and Janus) in the same orbit, so there is some uncertainty about which one was the object of Pioneer's near-miss. Pioneer 11 encountered Janus on September 1, 1979 at 14:52 UTC at a distance of 2500 km and Mimas at 16:20 UTC the same day at 103000 km.

Besides Epimetheus, instruments located another previously undiscovered small moon and an additional ring, charted Saturn's magnetosphere and magnetic field and found its planet-size moon, Titan, to be too cold for life. Hurtling underneath the ring plane, the probe sent back pictures of Saturn's rings. The rings, which normally seem bright when observed from Earth, appeared dark in the Pioneer pictures, and the dark gaps in the rings seen from Earth appeared as bright rings.

Pioneer 11 Jupiter encounter  Approach on Jupiter  The Great Red Spot imaged by Pioneer 11  The Great Red Spot prior to closest approach

Cloud bands along the edge of Jupiter  Beginning polar gravity assist  Jupiter polar region from 1,079,000 km  Io imaged from 756,000 km  Pioneer 11 image of Saturn's moon Titan

Media related to Pioneer 11 Jupiter encounter at Wikimedia Commons

Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/08/26  Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/01  Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/01  Outgoing Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/03

Media related to Pioneer 11 Saturn encounter at Wikimedia Commons

NASA ends operations

On September 29, 1995, NASA's Ames Research Center, responsible for managing the project, issued a press release that began, "After nearly 22 years of exploration out to the farthest reaches of the Solar System, one of the most durable and productive space missions in history will come to a close." It indicated NASA would use its Deep Space Network antennas to listen "once or twice a month" for the spacecraft's signal, until "some time in late 1996" when "its transmitter will fall silent altogether." NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin characterized Pioneer 11 as "the little spacecraft that could, a venerable explorer that has taught us a great deal about the Solar System and, in the end, about our own innate drive to learn. Pioneer 11 is what NASA is all about – exploration beyond the frontier."^[25] Besides announcing the end of operations, the dispatch provided a historical list of Pioneer 11 mission achievements.

Current status

Simulated view of the position of Pioneer 11 as of 8 February 2012 showing spacecraft trajectory since launch

On July 19, 2015, Pioneer 11 was 90.716 AU (1.35709×10¹⁰ km; 8.4326×10⁹ mi) from the Earth and 91.672 AU (1.37139×10¹⁰ km; 8.5214×10⁹ mi) from the Sun; and traveling at 11.376 km/s (25,450 mph) (relative to the Sun) and traveling outward at about 2.4 AU per year.^[26] The spacecraft is heading in the direction of the constellation Scutum.

Pioneer 11 has now been overtaken by the two Voyager probes, launched in 1977, and Voyager 1 is now the most distant object built by humans.^[27]

Pioneer anomaly

Analysis of the radio tracking data from the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft at distances between 20–70 AU from the Sun has consistently indicated the presence of a small but anomalous Doppler frequency drift. The drift can be interpreted as due to a constant acceleration of (8.74 ± 1.33) × 10⁻¹⁰ m/s² directed towards the Sun. Although it is suspected that there is a systematic origin to the effect, none was found. As a result, there is sustained interest in the nature of this so-called "Pioneer anomaly".^[28] Extended analysis of mission data by Slava Turyshev and colleagues has determined the source of the anomaly to be asymmetric thermal radiation and the resulting thermal recoil force acting on the face of the Pioneers away from the Sun,^[29] and in July 2012 the group of researchers published their results in the Physical Review Letters scientific journal.^[30]

Pioneer plaque

Pioneer 10 and 11 both carry a gold-anodized aluminum plaque in the event that either spacecraft is ever found by intelligent lifeforms from other planetary systems. The plaques feature the nude figures of a human male and female along with several symbols that are designed to provide information about the origin of the spacecraft.^[31]

See also

• Cassini–Huygens
• List of artificial objects escaping from the Solar System
• List of missions to the outer planets
• New Horizons
• Pioneer 10
• Robotic spacecraft
• Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes
• Voyager 1
• Voyager 2
• Voyager program

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pioneer program.

• Pioneer Project Home Page
• Pioneer 11 Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
• Ted Stryk's Pioneer 11 at Saturn page
• NSSDC Pioneer 11 page
• Pioneer Odyssey, NASA SP-396, 1977 - This is an entire book about the Pioneer 10 and 11 project, with all pictures and diagrams, on-line. Scroll down to click on the "Table of Contents" link.

Pioneer program
Early missions	Pioneer 0 Pioneer 1 Pioneer 2 Pioneer 3 Pioneer 4 Pioneer P-1 (W) Pioneer P-3 (X) Pioneer P-30 (Y) Pioneer P-31 (Z) Pioneer 5 (P-2)
Later missions	Pioneer 6 Pioneer 7 Pioneer 8 Pioneer 9 Pioneer E Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Pioneer H
Venus missions	Pioneer Venus project Pioneer Venus Orbiter Pioneer Venus Multiprobe
See also	Pioneer plaque Pioneer anomaly

Spacecraft missions to Jupiter
Orbiters	Galileo Juno
Descent probes	Galileo Probe
Flybys	Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Ulysses Cassini–Huygens New Horizons
Planned missions	Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (2022) Europa Multiple-Flyby Mission (2025)
Proposed flybys	Uranus Orbiter
Proposed missions	Io Volcano Observer (2021) Laplace-P (2023) Smara (2030)
Cancelled / Concepts	Argo (stale proposal) Cassini-Huygens (retirement) Europa Jupiter System Mission-Laplace Jupiter Europa Orbiter Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter Jupiter and Trojan Asteroid Explorer Europa Orbiter Innovative Interstellar Explorer Jovian Europa Orbiter Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter Neptune Orbiter New Horizons 2 Pioneer H Tsiolkovsky mission
Program overviews	Pioneer program Voyager program
Related topics	Exploration of Jupiter Atmosphere of Jupiter Magnetosphere of Jupiter Moons of Jupiter Io Exploration Europa Colonization Ganymede Callisto Rings of Jupiter Deep Space Network Missions to the outer planets Colonization of the outer Solar System

Spacecraft missions to Saturn
Orbiters	Cassini–Huygens (current)
Landers	Huygens (Titan)
Past flybys	Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2
Proposed missions	AVIATR (Titan only) Enceladus Life Finder Enceladus Explorer Journey to Enceladus and Titan Kronos Life Investigation For Enceladus Saturn Atmospheric Entry Probe Saturn Ring Observer TALISE (Titan only) Titan Mare Explorer Titan Saturn System Mission
Former plans	Soviet mission plan
Italics indicates active missions, even if they passed Saturn already.

Jupiter
Geography	Atmosphere Great Red Spot White ovals Oval BA Diamonds Magnetosphere Rings
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Astronomy	General Jupiter-crossing minor planets Solar eclipses Trojans Greek camp Trojan camp Impact events Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 2009 Jupiter impact event 2010 Jupiter impact event
Exploration Orbiting Missions	Current Juno Past Cassini Galileo New Horizons Pioneer program 10 11 Ulysses Voyager program 1 2 Future Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (2022) Europa Multiple-Flyby Mission (2025) Proposed Io Volcano Observer (2021) Herschel Orbital Reconnaissance of the Uranian System (2021 flyby) Laplace-P (2023) Smara (2030)
Related	Fiction Jovian Jupiter Moons Mythology
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Ganymede
Geology	Lists List of geological features on Ganymede List of quadrangles on Ganymede List of craters on Ganymede Impact craters Achelous El Gula Khensu Kittu Neith Nergal Regions Galileo Regio Sulci Uruk Sulcus Faculae Memphis Facula Catenae Enki Catena
Exploration	Past Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Galileo Cassini–Huygens New Horizons Planned Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer Proposed Laplace-P Cancelled Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter
Other	Ganymede in fiction Life

Callisto
Geology	Lists List of geological features on Callisto List of craters on Callisto Craters Adlinda Arcas Asgard Burr Doh Njord Omol' Tornarsuk Utgard Hár Jalkr Keelut Lofn Tindr Valhalla Egdir Mimir Catenae Gomul Catena
Exploration	Past Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Galileo Cassini–Huygens New Horizons Future Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer Cancelled Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter Proposed manned Colonization
Other	Callisto in fiction Galilean moons Life Moons of Jupiter

Io
Main articles	Io Volcanology of Io Exploration of Io
Geology	Lists Regions Mountains Volcanic Features Quadrangles Paterae Ah Peku Amaterasu Asha Babbar Dazhbog Estan Fuchi Gish Bar Kami-Nari Kinich Ahau Loki Manua Maui Mithra Monan Pillan Prometheus Pyerun Reiden Shango Svarog Tawhaki Thomagata Tupan Tvashtar Viracocha Mountains Egypt Euboea Silpium Tohil Lava flows or channels Tawhaki Volcanoes Amirani Masubi Pele Prometheus Surt Thor Zamama Fluctūs Kanehekili Fluctus Plains and plateaus Danube Planum
Exploration	Past Pioneer program Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Voyager program Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Galileo Cassini New Horizons Proposed Io Volcano Observer Cancelled/ Concepts Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter

Europa
Geology	Chaotic terrain Conamara Chaos Craters Pwyll Lists List of lineae on Europa List of geological features on Europa List of craters on Europa
Exploration	Past Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Galileo Cassini–Huygens New Horizons Planned Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (launches 2022) Europa Multiple-Flyby Mission (launches 2024) Cancelled/ Concepts Jupiter Europa Orbiter Europa Orbiter Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter Jovian Europa Orbiter Europa Lander (rerouted to Ganymede as Laplace-P)
Other	Colonization of Europa Life Europa in fiction

Saturn
Geography	Dragon Storm Great White Spot Hexagon Magnetosphere Rings Diamonds
Moons	S/2009 S 1 Pan Daphnis Atlas Prometheus ?(S/2004 S 6 S/2004 S 4 S/2004 S 3) Pandora Epimetheus Janus Aegaeon Mimas Methone Anthe Pallene Enceladus Tethys Telesto Calypso Dione Helene Polydeuces Rhea Titan Hyperion Iapetus Kiviuq Ijiraq Phoebe Paaliaq Skathi Albiorix S/2007 S 2 Bebhionn Erriapus Skoll Siarnaq Tarqeq S/2004 S 13 Greip Hyrrokkin Jarnsaxa Tarvos Mundilfari S/2006 S 1 S/2004 S 17 Bergelmir Narvi Suttungr Hati S/2004 S 12 Farbauti Thrymr Aegir S/2007 S 3 Bestla S/2004 S 7 S/2006 S 3 Fenrir Surtur Kari Ymir Loge Fornjot
Astronomy	Delta Octantis Saturn-crossing minor planets
Exploration	Cassini–Huygens Enceladus Explorer Pioneer 11 Voyager program
Related	Fiction Saturn Moons

Titan
General	Atmosphere of Titan Climate of Titan Life on Titan
Lists	Lakes of Titan List of geological features on Titan
Lakes and seas	Seas Kraken Mare Ligeia Mare Punga Mare Lakes Abaya Lacus Bolsena Lacus Feia Lacus Hammar Lacus Jingpo Lacus Kivu Lacus Koitere Lacus Ladoga Lacus Mackay Lacus Müggel Lacus Neagh Lacus Ontario Lacus Sotonera Lacus Dry lakes Eyre Lacuna Ngami Lacuna Woytchugga Lacuna
Features	Adiri Arrakis Planitia Dilmun Doom Mons Erebor Mons Ganesa Macula Guabonito Irensaga Montes Menrva Mezzoramia Mindolluin Montes Misty Montes Mithrim Montes Perkunas Virgae Shangri-La Shikoku Facula Sotra Patera Taniquetil Montes Tsegihi Tui Regio Xanadu
Exploration	Current Cassini–Huygens Proposed AVIATR (Titan only) Kronos TALISE (Titan only) Titan Mare Explorer Titan Saturn System Mission Past Pioneer program Pioneer 11 Voyager program Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Huygens (spacecraft) (Titan only) See also Colonization of Titan
Other topics	Memorials on Titan Titan in fiction

Rhea
Geography	Craters Inktomi Tirawa Quadrangles List Features List
Discoverer	Giovanni Domenico Cassini
Exploration	Past Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Present Cassini–Huygens Proposed Titan Saturn System Mission
Other	Fiction Rings

Iapetus
Geography	Regions Cassini Regio Terrae Roncevaux Terra Saragossa Terra Craters Turgis Mountains Equatorial ridge Voyager Mountains
Discovery	Giovanni Domenico Cassini
Exploration	Past Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Present Cassini–Huygens Proposed Titan Saturn System Mission
Other	Fiction

Tethys
Geology	Chasmata Ithaca Chasma Ogygia Chasma Montes Scheria Montes Craters Melanthius Odysseus Penelope Lists Features Quadrangles
Discovery	Giovanni Domenico Cassini
Exploration	Past Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Current Cassini–Huygens Proposed Titan Saturn System Mission
Other	Fiction

Enceladus
Geography	Plains Diyar Sarandib Sulci Harran Labtayt Samarkand Fossae Bassorah Daryabar Isbanir Craters Ahmad Al-Bakbuk Al-Fakik Al-Haddar Al-Kuz Al-Mustazi Aladdin Ali Baba Ayyub Behram Dalilah Duban Dunyazad Fitnah Ghanim Gharib Hassan Jansha Julnar Khusrau Marjanah Musa Otbah Peri-Banu Rayya Salih Samad Shahrazad Shahryar Shakashik Sharrkan Shirin Sindbad Zumurrud Quadrangles List Other Atmosphere
Exploration	Past Pioneer 11 Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Current Cassini–Huygens Proposed Enceladus Explorer Enceladus Life Finder Journey to Enceladus and Titan Life Investigation For Enceladus Titan Saturn System Mission
Other	Fiction

NASA
Policy and history	History NACA (1915) National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) Space Task Group (1958) Paine (1986) Rogers (1986) Ride (1987) Space Exploration Initiative (1989) Augustine (1990) U.S. National Space Policy (1996) CFUSAI (2002) CAIB (2003) Vision for Space Exploration (2004) Aldridge (2004) Augustine (2009) General Space Race Administrator and Deputy Administrator Chief Scientist Astronaut Corps Budget Spin-off technologies NASA TV NASA Social Launch Services Program Kennedy Space Center Vehicle Assembly Building Launch Complex 39 Launch Control Center Johnson Space Center Mission Control Lunar Sample Laboratory
Robotic programs	Past Hitchhiker Mariner Mariner Mark II MESUR Mars Surveyor '98 New Millennium Lunar Orbiter Pioneer Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Viking Project Prometheus Mars Scout Current Living With a Star Lunar Precursor Robotic Program Earth Observing System Great Observatories program Explorer Small explorer Voyager Discovery New Frontiers Mars Exploration Rover
Human spaceflight programs	Past X-15 (suborbital) Mercury Gemini Apollo Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (with USSR) Skylab Shuttle–Mir (with Russia) Space Shuttle program Constellation program Current International Space Station program Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) Orion
Individual featured missions (human and robotic)	Past COBE Apollo 11 Mercury 3 Mercury-Atlas 6 Magellan Pioneer 10/11 Galileo GALEX GRAIL WMAP Space Shuttle LADEE MESSENGER Aquarius Currently operating MRO Mars Odyssey Dawn New Horizons Kepler International Space Station Hubble Space Telescope Spitzer RHESSI SWIFT THEMIS Mars Exploration Rover Curiosity rover timeline Opportunity rover observed Cassini GOES 14 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter GOES 15 Van Allen Probes SDO Juno Mars Science Laboratory timeline NuSTAR Voyager 1/2 WISE MAVEN MMS Future JPSS James Webb Space Telescope WFIRST InSight OSIRIS-REx Asteroid Redirect Mission Mars 2020 NISAR Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite Europa Multiple-Flyby Mission
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