Period 7 element

Period 7 in the periodic table

A period 7 element is one of the chemical elements in the seventh row (or period) of the periodic table of the chemical elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to repeat, meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical columns. The seventh period contains 32 elements, tied for the most with period 6, beginning with francium and ending with oganesson, the heaviest element currently discovered. As a rule, period 7 elements fill their 7s shells first, then their 5f, 6d, and 7p shells, in that order; however, there are exceptions, such as uranium.

Properties

All elements of period 7 are radioactive. This period contains the actinides, which contains the heaviest naturally occurring element, plutonium; subsequent elements must be synthesized artificially. Whilst the first five of these are now available in macroscopic quantities, most are extremely rare, having only been prepared in microgram amounts or less. The later, transactinide elements have only been identified in laboratories in batches of a few atoms at a time.

Although the rarity of many of these elements means that experimental results are not very extensive, their periodic and group trends are less well defined than other periods. Whilst francium and radium do show typical properties of their respective groups, actinides display a much greater variety of behaviour and oxidation states than the lanthanides. These peculiarities are due to a variety of factors, including a large degree of spin-orbit coupling and relativistic effects, ultimately caused by the very high positive electrical charge from their massive atomic nuclei.

Elements

Chemical element			Chemical series	Electron configuration	Occurrence
87	Fr	Francium	Alkali metal	[Rn] 7s1	From decay
88	Ra	Radium	Alkaline earth metal	[Rn] 7s2	From decay
89	Ac	Actinium	Actinide	[Rn] 6d1 7s2 (*)	From decay
90	Th	Thorium	Actinide	[Rn] 6d2 7s2 (*)	Primordial
91	Pa	Protactinium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f2 6d1 7s2 (*)	From decay
92	U	Uranium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2 (*)	Primordial
93	Np	Neptunium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f4 6d1 7s2 (*)	From decay
94	Pu	Plutonium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f6 7s2	From decay
95	Am	Americium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f7 7s2	Synthetic
96	Cm	Curium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f7 6d1 7s2 (*)	Synthetic
97	Bk	Berkelium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f9 7s2	Synthetic
98	Cf	Californium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f10 7s2	Synthetic
99	Es	Einsteinium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f11 7s2	Synthetic
100	Fm	Fermium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f12 7s2	Synthetic
101	Md	Mendelevium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f13 7s2	Synthetic
102	No	Nobelium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f14 7s2	Synthetic
103	Lr	Lawrencium	Actinide	[Rn] 5f14 7s2 7p1 (*)	Synthetic
104	Rf	Rutherfordium	Transition metal	[Rn] 5f14 6d2 7s2	Synthetic
105	Db	Dubnium	Transition metal	[Rn] 5f14 6d3 7s2	Synthetic
106	Sg	Seaborgium	Transition metal	[Rn] 5f14 6d4 7s2	Synthetic
107	Bh	Bohrium	Transition metal	[Rn] 5f14 6d5 7s2	Synthetic
108	Hs	Hassium	Transition metal	[Rn] 5f14 6d6 7s2	Synthetic
109	Mt	Meitnerium	Transition metal (?)	[Rn] 5f14 6d7 7s2 (?)	Synthetic
110	Ds	Darmstadtium	Transition metal (?)	[Rn] 5f14 6d8 7s2 (?)	Synthetic
111	Rg	Roentgenium	Transition metal (?)	[Rn] 5f14 6d9 7s2 (?)	Synthetic
112	Cn	Copernicium	Transition metal	[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 (?)	Synthetic
113	Nh	Nihonium	Post-transition metal (?)	[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p1 (?)	Synthetic
114	Fl	Flerovium	Post-transition metal	[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p2 (?)	Synthetic
115	Mc	Moscovium	Post-transition metal (?)	[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p3 (?)	Synthetic
116	Lv	Livermorium	Post-transition metal (?)	[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p4 (?)	Synthetic
117	Ts	Tennessine	Post-transition metal (?)	[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p5 (?)	Synthetic
118	Og	Oganesson	Noble gas (?)	[Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6 (?)	Synthetic

(?) Prediction

(*) Exception to the Madelung rule.

Francium and radium

Francium and radium make up the s-block elements of the 7th period.

Francium (/ˈfrænsiəm/ FRAN-see-əm) is a chemical element with symbol Fr and atomic number 87. It was formerly known as eka-caesium and actinium K.^{[note 1]} It is one of the two least electronegative elements, the other being caesium. Francium is a highly radioactive metal that decays into astatine, radium, and radon. As an alkali metal, it has one valence electron. Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France (from which the element takes its name) in 1939. It was the last element discovered in nature, rather than by synthesis.^{[note 2]} Outside the laboratory, francium is extremely rare, with trace amounts found in uranium and thorium ores, where the isotope francium-223 continually forms and decays. As little as 20–30 g (one ounce) exists at any given time throughout the Earth's crust; the other isotopes are entirely synthetic. The largest amount produced in the laboratory was a cluster of more than 300,000 atoms.^[1]

Radium (/ˈreɪdiəm/ RAY-dee-əm) is a chemical element with atomic number 88, represented by the symbol Ra. Radium is an almost pure-white alkaline earth metal, but it readily oxidizes on exposure to air, becoming black in color. All isotopes of radium are highly radioactive, with the most stable isotope being radium-226, which has a half-life of 1601 years and decays into radon gas. Because of such instability, radium is luminescent, glowing a faint blue. Radium, in the form of radium chloride, was discovered by Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie in 1898. They extracted the radium compound from uraninite and published the discovery at the French Academy of Sciences five days later. Radium was isolated in its metallic state by Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne through the electrolysis of radium chloride in 1910. Since its discovery, it has given names likeradium A and radium C₂ to several isotopes of other elements that are decay products of radium-226. In nature, radium is found in uranium ores in trace amounts as small as a seventh of a gram per ton of uraninite. Radium is not necessary for living organisms, and adverse health effects are likely when it is incorporated into biochemical processes because of its radioactivity and chemical reactivity.

Actinides

The atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki had a plutonium charge.^[2]

The actinide or actinoid (IUPAC nomenclature) series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium.^[3][4][5][6]

The actinide series derives its name from the group 3 element actinium. All but one of the actinides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling of the 5f electron shell; lawrencium, a d-block element, is also generally considered an actinide. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence.

Of the actinides, thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial, primordial, quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium, americium, curium, berkelium and californium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements.^[3][7] Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium.^[8]

All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors.

In presentations of the periodic table, the lanthanides and the actinides are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table,^[3] with placeholders or else a selected single element of each series (either lanthanum or lutetium, and either actinium or lawrencium, respectively) shown in a single cell of the main table, between barium and hafnium, and radium and rutherfordium, respectively. This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table (32 columns) shows the lanthanide and actinide series in their proper columns, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods).

Transactinides

Transactinide elements (also, transactinides, or super-heavy elements) are the chemical elements with atomic numbers greater than those of the actinides, the heaviest of which is lawrencium (103).^[9][10] All transactinides of period 7 have been discovered, up to oganesson (element 118).

Transactinide elements are also transuranic elements, that is, have an atomic number greater than that of uranium (92), an actinide. The further distinction of having an atomic number greater than the actinides is significant in several ways:

• The transactinide elements all have electrons in the 6d subshell in their ground state (and thus are placed in the d-block).
• Except for the first two transactinides, rutherfordium and dubnium, even the longest-lasting isotopes of transactinide elements have extremely short half-lives, measured in seconds, or smaller units.
• The element naming controversy involved the first five or six transactinide elements. These elements thus used three-letter systematic names for many years after their discovery had been confirmed. (Usually the three-letter symbols are replaced with two-letter symbols relatively shortly after a discovery has been confirmed.)

Transactinides are radioactive and have only been obtained synthetically in laboratories. None of these elements has ever been collected in a macroscopic sample. Transactinide elements are all named after nuclear physicists and chemists or important locations involved in the synthesis of the elements.

Chemistry Nobel Prize winner Glenn T. Seaborg who first proposed the actinide concept which led to the acceptance of the actinide series also proposed the existence of a transactinide series ranging from element 104 to 121 and a superactinide series approximately spanning elements 122 to 153. The transactinide seaborgium is named in his honor.

IUPAC defines an element to exist if its lifetime is longer than 10⁻¹⁴ seconds, the time needed for the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.^[11]

Notes

References